Search Index

Peruse through the current treatment discoveries for one of the deadliest diseases in the world. Learn about the factors that cause tumour growth, metastatic processes and blastomas. Cancer Articles Peruse through the current treatment discoveries for one of the deadliest diseases in the world. Learn about the factors that cause tumour growth, metastatic processes and blastomas. You may also like: Biology, Medicine COMING SOON COMING SOON COMING SOON COMING SOON Previous

The specific research that was recognised for a Nobel Prize in Physics was the discovery of radioactivity. Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy, in the form of radiation, a term that Curie herself coined. Marie Curie researched whether uranium, a weakly radioactive element, was found in other materials. She then analysed pitchblende, Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Women who have won the Nobel Prize in Physics Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 01/03/23 March is International Women’s month, so it seems like the perfect time to celebrate the women who have been awarded Nobel Prizes in Physics. There have only been a total of four women to receive this prestigious award, namely Marie Curie, Maria Goeppert Mayer, Donna Strickland, and Andrea Ghez. This article will detail the research each woman did to achieve the Nobel Prize, as well as the context of their discoveries. Marie Curie (1903) Arguably the most famous of these Nobel Prize winners, Marie Curie won her award for research on radioactive phenomena. Curie received half the Nobel Prize for Physics, shared with her husband, but at first, the committee had only intended to award it to him. This was the first Nobel Prize for Physics ever awarded to a woman. The specific research that was recognised for a Nobel Prize in Physics was the discovery of radioactivity. Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of energy, in the form of radiation, a term that Curie herself coined. Marie Curie researched whether uranium, a weakly radioactive element, was found in other materials. She then analysed pitchblende, a mineral made partially of uranium but had a higher amount of radiation. Curie investigated other elements that pitchblende could be made up of and, as a result of this, discovered new elements: polonium and radium. Following this, she had ambitions of obtaining pure radium, and following this achievement, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Maria Goeppert Mayer (1963) 60 years after Marie Curie was awarded her Nobel Prize for Physics, Maria Goeppert Mayer became the second female recipient. She received the Prize for her work in 1963 on the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. Goeppert Mayer shared her award with two other physicists who came to the same conclusion as her. The nuclear shell model describes the exact makeup of the atomic nucleus, through the exact numbers of protons and neutrons. Maria Goeppert Mayer’s mathematical work on this model described why there are certain amounts of neutrons and protons in stable atoms. She beautifully described the model in terms of waltzers dancing and spinning in circles. Donna Strickland (2018) The next female Nobel Prize in Physics award winner wouldn’t be until another half-century later, with Donna Strickland. Strickland was awarded the Prize for her work on chirped pulse amplification and its applications. Although the research itself was published in 1985, she didn’t receive the award until 2018. Chirped pulse amplification (CPA) is a technique that takes a very short laser pulse (a light flash) and makes it brighter. The technique is useful for making extremely precise cuts, so is used for many laser-related applications, such as laser eye surgery. The wide range of uses CPA has in medicine makes this an important discovery for physics which led to Strickland being awarded the Nobel Prize award. Andrea Ghez (2020) The result of the work of Andrea Ghez, the fourth female Nobel Prize in Physics recipient, may be the most exciting conclusion of the research described in this article. Ghez won the award for her role in discovering a black hole in the centre of our galaxy. A black hole is a very dense, compact object with gravity so strong that not even light can escape it. Until recently, physicists have not been able to visually observe black holes but instead can detect them by looking at how other objects, such as stars, behave around one. Andrea Ghez and her team used the movement of Sagittarius A* to prove that there was a black hole in the centre of the Milky Way. Written by Madeleine Hales Related articles: Female Nobel prize winners in chemistry / African-American women in cancer research

When we think of bacteria, we tend to focus on their pathogenicity and ability to cause diseases such as tuberculosis, which infects around one-quarter of the world’s population. However, whilst bacteria do have the potential to become parasitic, if the trillions of bacterial cells that make up the human microbiome ceased to exist, human health would experience a rapid decline. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why bacteria are essential for human survival Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 13/04/23 When we think of bacteria, we tend to focus on their pathogenicity and ability to cause diseases such as tuberculosis, which infects around one-quarter of the world’s population. However, whilst bacteria do have the potential to become parasitic, if the trillions of bacterial cells that make up the human microbiome ceased to exist, human health would experience a rapid decline. One reason for this is due to the critical role bacteria play in inducing the immune system against pathogenic threats. Upon viral infection, the interferon (IFN) defence system is initiated where the synthesis of antiviral cytokines is upregulated. Evidence suggests bacteria in the gut are capable of modulating the IFN system. They work by inducing macrophages and plasmacytoid dendritic cells to express type 1 IFN, which in turn primes natural killer cells and prepares cytotoxic CD8+ T cells for action. Erttmann et al (2022) demonstrate that a depletion of the gut microbiota diminishes the cell signalling pathways modulated by these commensal bacteria. This causes a reduction in type 1 IFN production, and thus an impairment in the activation of NK and CD8+ T cells. As a result, the body becomes more susceptible to attack by viral infections and less able to defend itself. This highlights just how vital the role bacteria in our microbiome play in providing us with innate immunity against viral pathogens and protecting our health. This also brings attention to our use of antibiotics, and the potential negative effects they may have on the commensal bacteria residing in our body. Erttmann et al (2022) further showed that mice treated with a variety of antibiotics exhibited a major reduction in gut microbiota diversity, thus severely comprising their ability to fight off viral infections. Research like this is important in informing doctors to be sensible in their administration of antibiotics, as well as informing patients to not self-medicate and unnecessarily ingest antibiotics. Ultimately, the commensal bacteria living in our bodies play essential roles in protecting human health, and it is, therefore, vital we take the necessary steps to also protect these remarkable microorganisms in return. Written by Bisma Butt REFERENCES Erttmann, S.F., Swacha, P., Aung, K.M., Brindefalk, B., Jiang, H., Härtlova, A., Uhlin, B.E., Wai, S.N. and Gekara, N.O., 2022. The gut microbiota prime systemic antiviral immunity via the cGAS-STING-IFN-I axis. Immunity, 55(5), pp.847-861. Ganal, S.C., Sanos, S.L., Kallfass, C., Oberle, K., Johner, C., Kirschning, C., Lienenklaus, S., Weiss, S., Staeheli, P., Aichele, P. and Diefenbach, A., 2012. Priming of natural killer cells by nonmucosal mononuclear phagocytes requires instructive signals from commensal microbiota. Immunity, 37(1), pp.171-186.

Manufacturing doubt is another strategy where facts are intentionally changed to promote an agenda. It is used in the tobacco industry and against the climate crisis. Meaning articles can maintain the façade of using scientific methods by referencing sources that are difficult to interpret whilst research supported by sound evidence is labelled and downplayed. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How fake science websites hijack our trust in experts to misinform and confuse Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 29/12/22 In science, all research is peer-reviewed by experts. Now, fake science websites are mimicking these disciplines. These websites capitalise on our trust in experts. In some cases, these websites are paid to publish fake science. This is becoming more common. In a recent global survey, almost 50% of respondents said they see false or misleading information online daily. By understanding the methods these sites use we can prevent their influence. Hyperlinking is a technique used to convince website users. They reassure the user that the content is credible, but most people don’t have experience in analytical techniques and so these links aren’t questioned. Repetition is used to increase the visibility of fake science content but also saturate search engines. This content can be repeated and spread across different sites. Users of “lateral reading” get multiple websites that corroborate the fake science from the initial source. Many of these sites only choose articles that agree with their perspective and depend on the audience not taking time to follow up. Manufacturing doubt is another strategy where facts are intentionally changed to promote an agenda. It is used in the tobacco industry and against the climate crisis. Meaning articles can maintain the façade of using scientific methods by referencing sources that are difficult to interpret whilst research supported by sound evidence is labelled and downplayed. On fake science websites first, check the hyperlinked articles. These websites will use sites with repeated content from disreputable sites. Next, look at the number of reposts a website has. Legitimate science posts are on credible websites. Some websites investigate websites that feature fake science. Ultimately, these websites thrive on users not having the time or skills to look deeper into the evidence, so doing so will help expose the fake websites. Written by Antonio Rodrigues Related articles: Digital disinformation / COVID-19 misconceptions

Beginning with the positives, there are reasons why future pandemics may be less serious compared to previous ones like the Spanish Flu (1918-1920), which killed approximately 500 million people or the Black Death (1346-1353), which eliminated half of Europe’s population. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are pandemics becoming less severe? Last updated: 13/11/24 Published: 25/04/23 Ever since the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic in March 2020, many people have become more aware of future pandemics and best management strategies for these health disasters. For example, an online article from 2022 discussed ways to prepare for the next pandemic such as surveilling zoonotic diseases and planning for faster vaccine production; these can be effective in overcoming another pandemic in the future, though it is important to consider factors that may inhibit the above strategies aside from exacerbating future pandemics. With this said, this article will compare the reasons for pandemics becoming less severe and the reasons why they can become worse. Beginning with the positives, there are reasons why future pandemics may be less serious compared to previous ones like the Spanish Flu (1918-1920), which killed approximately 500 million people or the Black Death (1346-1353), which eliminated half of Europe’s population. Firstly, vaccinations reduced the spread of and prevented serious symptoms of many infectious diseases ranging from the eradicated smallpox to the seasonal influenza. Therefore, undermining the success of vaccines during pandemics is not ideal since this has negative consequences, mainly prolonging pandemics and killing more people. Secondly, there are antimicrobial treatments for a person infected with either a viral, bacterial, protozoal, or fungal infection. For instance during World War 2, penicillin has decreased bacterial pneumonia’s death rate from 18% to 1% in soldiers as well as saving 14% of the UK’s injured soldiers. Therefore, this event prevented bacterial spread and a potential pandemic that could have occurred without penicillin or other antibiotics. Another important treatment is for malaria. A review and meta analysis from Ethiopia showed that for artemether-lumefantrine in 10 studies involving 1179 patients, 96.7% did not have a fever and 98.5% did not have the malaria parasite after they were treated for 3 days. Again, artemether-lumefantrine with other antiparasitic drugs reduced the possibility of a malarial pandemic. Additionally, there are non-medical interventions that may decrease the severity of pandemics. For instance, a cross-panel analysis discovered that enforcing a lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic saw new cases declining around 10 days after execution and this benefit grows after 20 days of the lockdown. Similarly, a review highlighted that social distancing of more than 1 metre between individuals led to reduced COVID-19 transmission risk by 5 times while the impact of protection two-fold for each extra 1 metre. Considering both of these methods, re-using them for future pandemics can reduce infectious disease spread in combination with vaccinations and antimicrobial drugs. On the other hand, it is crucial to consider the counter argument of why pandemics may worsen in the future. To illustrate, there is the possibility that diseases could resurge into more fatal variants similar to COVID-19, which lead to more deaths and vaccines becoming less effective. Alternatively, there may a current contagious pathogen that can combine with another one to form a new disease; this is how HIV/AIDS become virulent since the 1980s to present day as researchers uncovered that the virus collaborates with non-viral diseases like malaria and tuberculosis and viral diseases such as hepatitis C to harm/kill the patient. These instances can occur for viral pathogens along with other types (protists, bacteria and fungi). As for non-viral pathogens, it is likely that future pandemics originate from them with a review discussing bacteria like MRSA or ones causing water-borne and unsanitary food infections infecting humans and animals. It elaborated that multi-drug resistant bacteria would be arduous to destroy opposed to non-resistant ones, resulting in higher: mortalities, medical logistics, costs and hospitalisations. Going back to penicillin with other antibiotics, although it was used since World War 2 for bacterial infections, resistance towards them has exponentially increased whereby countless types of bacteria overpower their effects because antibiotics have been overprescribed and their use in agriculture has made bacteria stronger. Another reason to consider pandemics becoming worse is the counter-effectiveness of lockdowns. An article stated that comparing them between countries is insufficient because there is a lack of evidence for them tackling COVID-19 and the 1918-1920 Spanish Flu. Also, it found that it is expensive to enforce them and suggested a 20 fold death rate, indicating that a cost-benefit analysis is needed before utilising lockdowns to stop the spread of infectious diseases. Additionally, COVID-19 not only had detrimental impacts on health, it influenced non-health factors such as economics, culture and politics. For example, lots of Iranian people went to crowded places and business centres as the government did not have the finances during their lockdown to protect citizens from the virus. Overall, everyone should collaborate to prepare for the inevitability of future pandemics because historically, using a multitude of methods: lockdowns, vaccines, social distancing and antimicrobial drugs in order to minimise the time span and consequences of the pandemics. Referring back to deadliest pandemics from the past like the Black Death and Spanish Flu, it is our responsibility to prevent history from repeating itself. Written by Sam Jarada Related article: Rare zoonotic diseases REFERENCES Sridhar D. Five ways to prepare for the next pandemic. Nature. 2022 Oct 26;610(7933):S50–0. Jarus O. 20 of the worst epidemics and pandemics in history. livescience.com. 2020 Mar 3. Rayner C. How the discovery of penicillin has influenced modern medicine - The Oxford Scientist. The Oxford Scientist. 2020 June 1. Ayalew MB. Therapeutic efficacy of artemether-lumefantrine in the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infectious Diseases of Poverty. 2017 Nov 15;6(1). Alfano V, Ercolano S. The Efficacy of Lockdown Against COVID-19: A Cross-Country Panel Analysis. Applied Health Economics and Health Policy. 2020 Jun 3;18(4):509–17. Sun KS, Lau TSM, Yeoh EK, Chung VCH, Leung YS, Yam CHK, et al. Effectiveness of different types and levels of social distancing measures: a scoping review of global evidence from earlier stage of COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open. 2022 Apr 1;12(4):e053938. Singer M. Pathogen-pathogen interaction. Virulence. 2010;1(1):10–8. Salazar CB, Spencer P, Mohamad K, Jabeen A, Abdulmonem WA, Fernández N. Future pandemics might be caused by bacteria and not viruses: Recent advances in medical preventive practice. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2022;16(3):1–3. Ventola CL. The Antibiotic Resistance crisis: Part 1: Causes and Threats. P & T : a peer-rev10. Yanovskiy M, Socol Y. Are Lockdowns Effective in Managing Pandemics? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022 Jul 29;19(15):9295. Yoosefi Lebni J, Abbas J, Moradi F, Salahshoor MR, Chaboksavar F, Irandoost SF, et al. How the COVID-19 pandemic effected economic, social, political, and cultural factors: A lesson from Iran. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. 2020 Jul 2;67(3):002076402093998.

For this experiment, the gravitational acceleration was calculated by measuring the time period of a simple pendulum using three different experimental methods; methods 2 and 3 were more similar than method 1. This experiment is primarily for data analysis of the measurements taken of a simple pendulum oscillating freely to determine the acceleration due to gravity. Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Outline of an investigation of the period of a single pendulum, and its relation to gravity Last updated: 13/11/24 Last updated: 26/01/23 For this experiment, the gravitational acceleration was calculated by measuring the time period of a simple pendulum using three different experimental methods; methods 2 and 3 were more similar than method 1. This experiment is primarily for data analysis of the measurements taken of a simple pendulum oscillating freely to determine the acceleration due to gravity. This experiment can be repeated but can be carried out in different viscous liquids to see how the extra damping force affects the time period of the oscillation and calculate the g value from it. This can be useful to know as then making pendulum watches to work, say in different environments (such as under water), will be easier to make. It has future implications in industries and/ or technologies that produce related devices. Overall, this experiment was flawed from the beginning from not correctly applying the small angle criteria (in methods 2 and 3). However, there was success for method 1. (Reduced from a full lab report) Written by Siam Sama

This experiment was to find out the dynamic liquid viscosity of castor oil using stainless steel spheres of different radii at room temperature. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow and is formally defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing velocity. Viscosity arises due to the friction between the particles in a fluid, Go back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Summary of a liquid viscosity experiment Last updated: 07/11/24 Published: 26/01/23 For this experiment the liquid viscosity of castor oil was determined by dropping steel spherical balls into a tube of castor oil. By considering the forces acting on the ball whilst in the fluid, it was found that the viscosity was 1.37±0.01 Pa s with a percentage error of 71.25% to the literature value of castor oil’s viscosity. This experiment was to find out the dynamic liquid viscosity of castor oil using stainless steel spheres of different radii at room temperature. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow and is formally defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to the shearing velocity. Viscosity arises due to the friction between the particles in a fluid, because as the particles slide past each other there will be work done to slide over another particle which will produce heat. For this experiment, laminar flow was a valid model for the sphere falling down the castor oil tube, because the terminal velocity of the sphere is quite small and was reached quickly so there will not be any turbulence effects. Laminar flow is defined when liquids flow smoothly with layers that do not mix, however when the layers do mix then the flow is turbulent with different layers of the fluid swirling and mixing. As the sphere was travelling through the fluid there were 3 forces acting on it: drag force, weight and buoyancy. This investigation can be furthered as viscosity is vital in the field of medicine. There are certain drugs that are directly injected into patients so by knowing the optimal path for the drug to be administered, the drug can reach the patient’s vital areas as quickly as possible. Overall, this experiment was interesting as it led to numerous insights as to what may have affected the motion of a sphere falling down the tube of a viscous fluid, regardless of the simplicity of the experiment. Even though the uncertainties did not overlap with the literature value and the percentage differences were very high (in part due to calculations of the momentum), the experiment was not a failure due to the scientific insight it provided to make a carry out a more accurate experiment. Written by Siam Sama

Malaria is a vicious parasitic disease spread through the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito, with young children being its most prevalent victim. In 2021, there were over 600,000 reported deaths, giving us an insight into its Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Could this new vaccine spell the end of malaria? Last updated: 20/01/25 Published: 01/02/23 Malaria is a vicious parasitic disease spread through the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito, with young children being its most prevalent victim. In 2021, there were over 600,000 reported deaths, giving us an insight into its alarming virulence. The obstacle in lessening malaria's disease burden is the challenge of creating a potent vaccine. The parasite utilises a tactic known as antigenic variation, where its extensive genetic diversity of antigens allows it to modulate its surface coat, allowing it to effectively evade the host immune system. However, unlike other variable malaria surface proteins, RH5, the protein required to invade red blood cells (RBC), does not vary and is therefore a promising target. Researchers at the University of Oxford have demonstrated various human antibodies that block the interaction between the RH5 malaria protein to host RBCs, providing hope for a new way to combat this deadly disease. The researchers have reported up to an 80% vaccine efficacy, surpassing the WHO's goal of developing a malaria vaccine with 75% efficacy. Therefore, this vaccine has the potential to be the world’s first highly effective malaria vaccine, and with adequate support in releasing this vaccine, we could be well on our way to seeing a world without child deaths from malaria. Written by Bisma Butt Related articles: Rare zoonotic diseases / mRNA vaccines

Dive into the latest biological research! Explore the profound impact of negligent exercise on well-being, discover breakthroughs in organoid and iPSC research, and gain insights into how biomarkers are enabling disease diagnosis and prevention. Biology Articles Dive into the latest biological research! Explore the profound impact of negligent exercise on well-being, discover breakthroughs in organoid and iPSC research, and gain insights into how biomarkers are enabling disease diagnosis and prevention. You may also like: Cancer , Ecology , Genetics , Immunology , Neuroscience , Zoology , and Medicine Can a human brain be uploaded to a computer? Uncovering the possibilities of transferring information from your brain to a computer Impacts of negligent exercise on physiology How to avoid negligent personal training as it can harm the individual Key historical events in public health A timeline of discoveries in the history of public health Influence of different environmental factors on exercise How different environmental factors can affect exercise Why bacteria are essential to human survival The benefits of bacteria Will diabetes mellitus become an epidemic? Diabetes mellitus is when the body is unable to produce enough insulin or becomes resistant to it Correlation between a country's HDI and COVID-19 mortality rate HDI stands for Human Development Index, i.e. how much a country is developed considering various factors such as wealth Rising food prices Food deserts and malnutrition Organoids in drug discovery What organoids are, their applications in drug discovery and more The genesis of life What came first: the chicken or the egg? Challenges in endometriosis Form underreporting to under-research iPSCs and organoids iPSC stands for induced pluripotent stem cells PCOS and endometriosis These two diseases are very similar, but how are they different? Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) A biomarker for renal damage Childhood stunting Its issue in developing countries Innovations in the biosciences The biggest ones currently Various health models Understanding health through different stances Medicinal Manuka The benefits of using Manuka honey as medicine The dual role of mitochondria A mechanism for survival, or death? Next

In today's fast-paced and often overwhelming world, taking care of our mental well-being is more crucial than ever. In this article, we will explore practical strategies that can easily be incorporated into our day-to-day lives, allowing us to establish a solid foundation for our mental well-being and sustain it in the long run. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Empowering your mental health journey with practical strategies Last updated: 30/01/25 Published: 18/05/23 In today's fast-paced and often overwhelming world, taking care of our mental well-being is more crucial than ever. In this article, we will explore practical strategies that can easily be incorporated into our day-to-day lives, allowing us to establish a solid foundation for our mental well-being and sustain it in the long run. 1. Embracing mindfulness Mindfulness is a powerful practice that helps us stay present, cultivate awareness, and manage stress. Imagine starting your day by dedicating a few minutes to mindful breathing or meditation, allowing yourself to set a calm and focused tone for the day. Engage in activities with a mindful mindset, whether it's taking a peaceful walk in nature, relishing a cup of tea, or fully immersing yourself in the present moment. 2. Exercise Physical activity is another essential self-care strategy that not only benefits our physical health but also plays a profound role in nurturing our mental well-being. Find an exercise routine that that brings you joy and that easily fits into your life. Whether it's walking, jogging, yoga, or any other form of movement that resonates with you, the key is to find something you enjoy and can stick to. Even small bursts of exercise throughout the day, like a short walk during your lunch break or opting for the stairs instead of the elevator, can make a significant difference in your overall well-being. 3. Sleep Hygiene Adequate sleep is vital for mental and emotional wellbeing. Establishing good sleep hygiene is crucial. Maintain a consistent sleep schedule by going to bed and waking up at the same time each day. Create a relaxing bedtime routine that signals to your body that it's time to unwind. Consider reading a book, taking a warm bath, or practicing gentle stretches to prepare your mind and body for restful sleep. Ensure your bedroom provides an optimal sleep environment by keeping it dark, quiet, and cool, and minimize exposure to screens before bed. 4. Online mental health platforms In our digital age, online mental health platforms have become invaluable resources for supporting our mental well-being. Platforms like Headspace , Better Help , and Calm offer a range of services, including meditation exercises, therapy sessions with licensed professionals, and stress reduction tools. Exploring these platforms can provide the support and guidance needed on your mental health journey. Self-care apps that can be installed on phones Prioritising self-care is essential for maintaining good mental health. By incorporating these practices into your daily routine, you can nurture your mind, body, and soul. By investing time and energy into yourself, you are fostering a stronger foundation for a happier and healthier life. Written by Viviana Greco Related articles: Stress and neurodegeneration / Physical and mental health