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A disease of the blood Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Anaemia 28/01/25, 14:59 Last updated: Published: 17/06/23, 12:40 A disease of the blood This is article no. 1 in a series about anaemia. Next article: iron-deficiency anaemia Introduction Erythrocytes in their typical state are a biconcave and nucleus free cell responsible for carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide. The production is controlled by erythropoietin and as they mature in the bone marrow, they lose their nuclei. These red blood cells (RBC) contain haemoglobin, which aids in the transport of oxygen and iron, iron is a key component of haem, insufficient levels of iron leads to anaemic disorders. Low oxygen-carrying capacity may be defined by too few RBC in circulation or RBC dysfunction. Haem iron is acquired through the digestion of meat and transported through enterocytes of the duodenum, in its soluble form. Erythrocytic iron accounts for approximately 50% of the iron in blood. Metals cannot move freely throughout the body so they must be transported, the molecule involved in transporting iron is known as transferrin. Plasma transferrin saturation refers to the iron that is attached to transferrin, in iron deficient anaemia (IDA) this will always be low. Anaemia is physiological or pathological, these changes can be due to a plethora of causes; malabsorption due to diet or gastrointestinal (GI) conditions, genetic dispositions such as sideroblastic anaemias (SA), thalassaemia, or deficiency in erythropoietin due to comorbidities and chronic disease; where haemolysis is caused by autoimmune disorders, infections and drugs, or blood loss. Haem The iron is in a protoporphyrin ring at the centre of a haem molecule. The structure of haem consists of two alpha and two beta polypeptide chains to form a single haemoglobin macromolecule. Microcytic anaemias arise from problems in the creation of haemoglobin; sourcing through diet (IDA), synthesising protoporphyrin (SA) or from globin chain defects caused by thalassaemia. Summary Anaemia is a multifactorial condition with many different mechanisms involved, microcytic anaemias have an issue at the haemoglobin level, these can be acquired or inherited. A microcytic anaemia is caused by a failure to efficiently synthesise haemoglobin, whether from iron, protoporphyrin rings or globin chains. The diagnosis of anaemias is reliant on a patient’s background and medical history, as there are many factors involved in an anaemic disorder. A diagnosis should be patient led, as the age and sex of the patient can significantly highlight the origin and pathogenesis, as well as the prognosis and follow up care. Written by Lauren Kelly Related article: Blood Project Gallery

How they're used in treatments Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A new model: miniature organs in biomedicine 27/01/25, 16:33 Last updated: Published: 16/10/23, 21:39 How they're used in treatments Introduction Within biomedicine, the study of diseases and understanding their mechanisms are crucial to the treatments we can develop for them. Before a treatment option can be rolled out to the general public, it must be tested for safety and efficacy. Usually, this testing takes place in the form of cell cultures or animal models. However, these methods cannot always accurately replicate the human body's complexity and physiological responses and are sometimes quite expensive and difficult to maintain. In the past few years, a new model has come to light known as organoids, allowing for a new realm of understanding into drug development, disease, and human biology. What Are Organoids? Organoids are self-organised, small, three-dimensional organ models which allow scientists and researchers to study different biological organs and tissues in a lab setting, including their physiological functions, development, and structure. These miniature organs are remarkable in their resemblance to actual organs and are obtained from stem cells, and they can undergo division to become any cell type. From their theoretical abilities, organoids may be able to serve utmost value in biomedicine and how we think about testing new treatments. Disease Modelling, Drug Development and Personalised Medicine One of the ways in which organoids can be used is to model diseases and test for potential drug targets and treatment programmes. In this way, researchers can replicate congenital and acquired conditions, such as cystic fibrosis and cancer, to study key target phenotypes and understand disease progression, which can help identify potential drug targets. From here, the efficacy of these therapeutics can be assessed quite quickly under different circumstances. As an example of this being used currently, scientists involved in cancer research have produced organoids from tumour cells stemming from cancer patients. These patient-derived organoids have been made for various cancers, including endometrium. They will allow for the ability to test chemotherapy drugs and determine which are most effective for individual patients whilst factoring in comorbidities and other unique factors to that person. Through this personalised approach, it is hoped that therapeutics will allow for a customised treatment programme which lowers the risk of side effects and improves the quality of care. Understanding Development and Function Another use of organoids is going into more depth and exploring our understanding of how an organ may develop and function. Using organoids can help us observe how different cells may work together and interact to organise themselves, allowing researchers to strengthen their knowledge of organogenesis by mimicking the natural growth conditions of the human environment. By combining tissue engineering with an appreciation of an organ's functional and developmental processes, organoid use can be extended to regenerative medicine to help fill research gaps in the molecular and cellular mechanisms of tissue regeneration. Techniques such as ELISA and immunofluorescent staining can help garner these critical details. By achieving this, organoids may produce entire organs for transplantation, addressing the organ donor shortage and lowering the risk of donor rejection. Recent Breakthroughs Cardiovascular diseases are one of the leading causes of death around the world. The human heart is limited to regenerating damaged tissue; thus, research must explore using organoids and other cell-based therapies to encourage natural repair processes. By investigating this avenue, cardiomyocytes derived from human pluripotent stem cells are a promising source. These cell types have the potential to restore contractile functions in animal models as well as the ability to regenerate myocardial tissue. Researchers have developed a cardiac organoid with silicon nanowires that have significantly improved the medicinal efficacy of stem cell-derived cardiac organoids. Using these nano-wired organoids, electrical activity was shown to improve, which in turn supported improved contractility in ischemia-injured mice. Challenges and Future Directions While the promising nature of organoids must be acknowledged, they are not without limitations. Research is currently ongoing to improve the reproducibility and scalability of organoids and their cultures to make organoids more accessible and their use more widespread. Below are some summarised advantages and disadvantages of organoids. Conclusion In conclusion, the advent of organoids has created a revolutionary era within the scope of biomedicine. These miniature organs have remarkable potential in various research, development, and tissue engineering facets. Organoids provide scientists with precise modelling of diseases across a range of different organs, assuring their versatility. From understanding organ development to combating cardiovascular diseases and introducing personalised treatment for cancer patients, it is unclear why they are being more rapidly explored. While they hold their promise, there are still challenges surrounding their reproducibility, restricting them from being used in organ transplantation. However, with ongoing progress, organoids undoubtedly have the aptitude to tailor treatments and address complexities of tissue regeneration, heralding a groundbreaking era in healthcare. Written by Irha Khalid Related article: iPSCs and organoids Project Gallery

You can have endometriosis and PCOS at the same time Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are PCOS and endometriosis sisters? 16/03/25, 14:14 Last updated: Published: 30/01/24, 21:33 You can have endometriosis and PCOS at the same time The label of PCOS or endometriosis can have physical and emotional consequences for women. It is important for both male and females to gain a better understanding of such conditions, the symptoms and the challenges they pose. Such knowledge can act as physical and emotional support in times of need. It creates a safe space where the person with PCOS is comfortable discussing their experiences, feelings and concerns knowing they are being heard and supported by the right people. With research fast developing there is a plethora of information out there, so WHAT do you believe in and WHAT do you ignore and WHOM do you believe and WHOM do you ignore? Endometriosis and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) both affect females and can have similar symptoms. However, the causes and some key symptoms are different. Endometriosis is a painful disorder in which tissue that normally lines the inside of your uterus grows outside the uterus. (Read more on Endometriosis breakthrough ). PCOS is an endocrine system disorder where small fluid-filled sacs develop in the ovaries. You can have endometriosis and PCOS at the same time. A 2015 study found that women with PCOS had a higher risk for a diagnosis of endometriosis. Another 2014 study determined that there is a strong link between endometriosis and PCOS with pelvic pain and trouble getting pregnant. What is a normal menstrual cycle? Let’s polish up the basics! The brain, ovaries and uterus work together to prepare the body per month for pregnancy. Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinising Hormone (LH) are made by the pituitary gland and progesterone and oestrogen are made in the ovaries. Many females with PCOS do not ovulate regularly and it may take these females longer to become pregnant. Irregular periods results in months where ovulation does not occur. Where the ovaries do not produce progesterone the lining of the uterus becomes thicker but shedding is very irregular which can lead to heavy and prolonged bleeding. PCOS affects 1 in 10 women in the UK. Women with PCOS experience irregular menstrual cycles, acne, excess hair growth, infertility, pregnancy complications and cardiovascular disease. PCOS can be associated with weight gain and obesity in approximately one-half of females. Females with PCOS can also be at increased risk of other problems that can impact quality of life. These include depression and anxiety, sexual dysfunction and eating disorders. Although PCOS is not ‘completely’ reversible there are many ways you can minimise the symptoms. Most females can lead a normal life and are able to conceive without significant complications. A pelvic examination is requested by your GP to assess the ovaries for a diagnosis to be made. Imaging tests for examining the ovaries are pelvic and intravaginal ultrasonography, however, the latter may be extremely uncomfortable if sexually inactive. Please be aware this article acts to capture your attention, encouraging you to delve further into the subject and continue your self-education on this topic and by no means is everything about PCOS. It is essential to consult with a healthcare professional if you suspect you may have symptoms of either PCOS or endometriosis. Proper diagnosis and management can help address specific concerns and improve overall reproductive health. Written by Khushleen Kaur Related articles: Endometriosis breakthrough / Underreporting in endometriosis / Gynaecology REFERENCES R. Hart and D. A. Doherty, Fertility Specialists of Western Australia (R.H.), Bethesda Hospital, 6008. K. J. Holoch, R. F. Savaris, D. A. Forstein, P. B. Miller, H. Lee Higdon, C. E. Likes and B. A. Lessey, https://doi.org/10.5301/je.5000181 , 2014, 6, 79–83. R. J. Norman, D. Dewailly, R. S. Legro and T. E. Hickey, The Lancet, 2007, 370, 685–697. Project Gallery

CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Biggest Innovations in Biosciences 06/02/25, 11:55 Last updated: Published: 25/03/24, 11:43 CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs ! Widget Didn’t Load Check your internet and refresh this page. If that doesn’t work, contact us. Project Gallery

Exenatide as a potential drug Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A common diabetes drug treating Parkinson’s disease 10/04/25, 11:00 Last updated: Published: 24/01/24, 21:15 Exenatide as a potential drug A new investigational drug, originally developed for type 2 diabetes, is being readied for human clinical trials in search of the world's first treatment to impede Parkinson's disease progression. Parkinson's (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder. The connection between type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and PD was discovered in 1993, when PD patients with co-existing T2DM had worse motor symptoms and response to therapy. Dopaminergic neurons promote eating behaviour in hypoglycaemic states, mediated via insulin receptors in the substantia nigra, because dopaminergic neuronal loss affects glycaemic control. Thus, T2DM patients are more likely to acquire PD than people without diabetes. Excess glucose in the brain, as found in uncontrolled T2DM, may interact randomly with surrounding proteins and interfere with their function. These interactions also result in toxic end products promoting inflammation and α-synuclein clustering, both of which are PD characteristics. Over a 12-year period, retrospective data (N=8,190,323) showed that T2DM responders had considerably greater PD rates when compared to those without diabetes. The rise was significantly more pronounced among individuals with complex T2DM and those aged 25-44. Exenatide: Overview and Mechanism of Action Exenatide is a synthetic form of exendin-4, a naturally occurring protein identified in the saliva of the Gila monster (poisonous lizard endemic to the Southwest US) by Dr. Eng in the early 1990s. In humans, the chemical is produced after a meal to increase insulin production, decreasing blood sugar. GLP-1 degrades fast in humans, and its benefits are short-lived. However, investigations have shown effects of exendin-4 continue longer in people. This finally led to FDA clearance in 2005, when the product was sold as Byetta TM . Its current indications are for the treatment of balancing glucose levels in T2DM with or without additional oral hypoglycemic medications. This glycaemic control is an analogue of human GLP-1, used in T2DM treatment, either alone or in conjunction with other antidiabetic medications. Exendin-4's neuroprotective characteristics may aid in rescuing degenerating cells and neuron protection. Because T2DM and PD are linked, researchers want to explore its effectiveness as a PD therapy. Patients treated with exenatide for one year (in addition to standard medication) experienced less deterioration in motor symptoms when tested without medication compared to the control group. Research on Exenatide as a Potential Parkinson's Disease Therapy 21 patients with intermediate PD were assessed over a 14-month period, and their progress was compared to 24 other people with Parkinson's who served as controls. Exenatide was well accepted by participants, albeit some individuals complained about weight loss. Significantly, exenatide-treated participants improved their PD movement symptoms, while the control patients continued to deteriorate. The researchers investigate exenatide, a possible PD therapy, in an upcoming clinical study, lending support to the repurposing of diabetes drugs for Parkinson's patients. This research adds to the evidence for a phase 3 clinical trial of exenatide for PD patients. Data on 100,288 T2DM revealed that people using two types of diabetic medications, GLP-1 agonists and DPP4-inhibitors, were less likely to be diagnosed with Parkinson's up to 3.3 years follow-up. Those who used GLP-1 agonists were 60% less likely to acquire PD than those who did not. The results revealed that T2DM had a higher risk of Parkinson's than those without diabetes, although routinely given medicines, GLP-1 agonists, and DPP4-inhibitors seemed to reverse the association. Furthermore, a 2-year follow-up research indicated individuals previously exposed to exenatide displayed a substantial improvement in their motor characteristics 12 months after they ceased taking the medication. However, this experiment was an open-label research so the gains may be explained by a placebo effect. The research adds to the evidence that exenatide may assist to prevent or treat PD, perhaps by altering the course of the illness rather than just lowering symptoms. Other risk factors for PD should be considered by clinicians when prescribing T2DM drugs, although further study is required to clarify clinical significance. Findings from Clinical Trials and Studies Based on these findings, the UCL team broadened their investigation and conducted a more extensive, double-blind, placebo-controlled experiment. The findings establish the groundwork for a new generation of PD medicines, but they also confirm the repurposing of a commercially existing therapy for this illness. Patients were randomly randomised (1:1) to receive exenatide 2 mg or placebo subcutaneous injections once weekly in addition to their current medication for 48 weeks, followed by a 12-week washout period. Web-based randomisation was used, with a two-stratum block design depending on illness severity. Treatment allocation was concealed from both patients and investigators. The main outcome was the adjusted difference in the motor subscale of the Movement Disorders Society Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale after 60 weeks in the realistically defined off-medication condition. Six major adverse events occurred in the exenatide group and two in the placebo group, but none were deemed to be connected to the research treatments in either group. It is unclear if exenatide alters the underlying illness mechanism or causes long-term clinical consequences. Implications and Future Directions Indeed, the UCL study showed that exenatide decreases deterioration compared to a placebo. However, participants reported no change in their quality of life. The study team would broaden their study to include a broader sample of people from several locations. Because PD proceeds slowly, longer-term trials might provide a better understanding of how exenatide works in these responders. Overall, findings suggest that gathering data on this class of medications should be the topic of additional inquiry to evaluate their potential. Exenatide is also being studied to see whether it might postpone the onset of levodopa-induced problems (e.g., dyskinesias). Furthermore, if exenatide works for Parkinson's, why not for other neurodegenerative illnesses (Alzheimer's, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis) or neurological diseases (including cerebrovascular disorders, traumatic brain injury...)? Exenatide has been FDA-approved for diabetes for many years and has a good track record, but it does have some adverse side effects in Parkinson's patients, namely gastrointestinal difficulties (nausea, constipation). Exenatide as a prospective PD therapy is an example of medication repurposing or repositioning, an essential method for bringing novel therapies to patients in a timely and cost-effectively. However, further research is required, so it will be many years before a new therapy is licenced and available. Drug repurposing, or using authorised medicines for one ailment to treat another, opens up new paths for Parkinson's therapeutic development. Conclusion Exenatide shows potential as a therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD). Studies have shown that exenatide may help improve motor symptoms and slow down the progression of PD. However, further research and clinical trials are needed to fully understand its effectiveness and long-term effects. The findings also suggest that repurposing existing medications, like exenatide, could provide new avenues for developing PD therapies. While exenatide shows promise, it will likely be many years before it is licensed and widely available as a PD treatment. PROJECT GALLERY IMAGES DESCRIPTION Figure 1- The use of GLP-1 is beyond diabetes treatment. Nineteen clinical studies found that GLP-1 agonists can improve motor scores in Parkinson's Disease, improve glucose metabolism in Alzheimer's, and improve quality of. They can also treat chemical dependency, improve lipotoxicity, and reduce insulin resistance. However, adverse effects are primarily gastrointestinal. Thus, GLP-1 analogues may be beneficial for other conditions beyond diabetes and obesity. Figure 2- Potent GLP-1 agonists suppress appetite through a variety of mechanisms, including delayed gastric emptying, increased glucose-dependent insulin secretion, decreased glucagon levels, and decreased food ingestion via central nervous system effects. Short-acting agents, including exenatide, primarily function by impeding gastric evacuation, thereby leading to a decrease in postprandial glucose levels. On the contrary, extended-release exenatide and other long-acting agonists (e.g., albiglutide, dulaglutide) exert a more pronounced impact on fasting glucose levels reduction via their mechanism of action involving the release of insulin and glucagon. The ineffectiveness of long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonists on gastric evacuation can be attributed to the development of tolerance to GLP-1 effects, which is regulated by parasympathetic tone alterations. Figure 3- Illustrated is the cross-communication with insulin receptor signalling pathways and downstream effectors . Biomarkers can be derived from the formation and origin of extracellular vesicles, which indicate the initial inward budding of the plasma membrane. An early endosome is formed when this membrane fuses; it subsequently accumulates cytoplasmic molecules. As a consequence, multivesicular bodies are generated, which subsequently fuse with the plasma membrane and discharge their constituents into the extracellular milieu. Akt denotes protein kinase B; Bcl-2 signifies extracellular signal-related kinase; Bcl-2 antagonist of death; Bcl-2 extra large; Bcl-XL signifies Bcl-2; Bim signifies Bcl-2-like protein 11; cAMP signifies cyclic adenosine monophosphate; CREB signifies cAMP response element-binding protein; Erk1/2 signifies extracellular signal-related kinase IDE, insulin-degrading enzyme; IL-1α, interleukin 1α; IRS-1, insulin receptor signalling substrate 1; MAPK, mitogen-associated protein kinase; mTOR, mechanistic target of rapamycin; mTORC1, mTOR complex 1; mTORC2, mTOR complex 2; NF-kB, nuclear factor–κB; PI3-K, phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PKA, protein kinase; FoxO1/O3, forkhead box O1/O3, forkhead box O1/O3; GRB2, growth factor receptor-bound protein 2; GSK-3β, Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Pre-diabetes / Will diabetes mellitus become an epidemic? / Parkinson's risk / Markers for Parkinsonism Project Gallery

The role of honesty Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Behavioural Economics I 06/01/25, 13:59 Last updated: Published: 24/01/24, 21:37 The role of honesty ! Widget Didn’t Load Check your internet and refresh this page. If that doesn’t work, contact us. Project Gallery

Through AI Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Revolutionising sustainable agriculture 27/03/25, 11:24 Last updated: Published: 27/06/23, 15:34 Through AI Artificial Intelligence (AI) is taking the world by storm. Recent developments now allow scientists to integrate AI into sustainable farming. Through transforming the way we grow crops, manage resources and pests, and most importantly- protect the environment. There are many applications for AI in agriculture. Outlined below are some of the areas in which the incorporation of AI systems improves sustainability: Precision farming Artificial intelligence systems help improve the overall quality and accuracy of harvesting – known as precision farming. Artificial intelligence technology helps detect plant diseases, pests, and malnutrition on farms. AI sensors can detect and target weeds, then decide what herbicide to use in an area. This helps reduce the use of herbicides and lower costs. Many tech companies have developed robots that use computer vision and AI to monitor and precisely spray weeds. These robots can eliminate 80% of the chemicals normally sprayed on crops and reduce herbicide costs by 90%. These intelligent AI sprayers can drastically reduce the amount of chemicals used in the field, improving product quality, and lowering costs. Vertical farming Vertical farming is a technique in which plants are grown vertically by being stacked on top of each other (usually indoors) as opposed to the ‘traditional way’ of growing plants and crops on big strips of land. This approach offers several benefits for sustainable agriculture and waste reduction. The use of AI brings even more significant advancements making vertical farming more sustainable and efficient- Intelligent Climate Control: AI can use algorithms to measure and monitor temperature, humidity, and lighting conditions to optimise climate control in vertical farms. Thus, reducing energy consumption and improving resource efficiency. Creating an enhanced climate-controlled environment also allows for repeatable and programmable crop production. Predictive Plant Modelling: the difference between a profitable year and a failed harvest can just be the specific time the seeds were sowed. By using AI, farmers can use predictive analysis tools to determine the exact date suitable for sowing seeds for maximum yield and reduce waste from overproduction. Automated Nutrient Monitoring: to optimise plant nutrition, AI systems monitor and adjust nutrient levels in hydroponic (plants immersed in nutrient containing water) and aeroponic setups (plants growing outside the soil, with nutrients being provided by spraying the roots). Genetic engineering AI plays a pivotal role in genetic engineering, enhancing the sustainability and precision of crop modification through- Targeted Gene Editing: AI algorithms help in gene editing to produce desirable traits in crops, such as resistance to disease or improved nutritional content. This allows genetic modification without the need to conduct extensive field trials. Thus, saving time and resources. Computational Modelling: by combining AI modelling with gene prediction, farmers will be able to predict which combinations of genes have the potential to increase crop yield. Pest management and disease detection Artificial intelligence solutions such as smart pest detection systems are being used to monitor crops for signs of pests and diseases. These systems detect changes in the environment such as temperature, humidity, and soil nutrients, then alert farmers when something is wrong. This allows farmers to act quickly and effectively, taking preventive measures before pests cause significant damage. Another way to achieve this is by using computer vision and image processing techniques. AI can detect signs of pest infestation, nutrient deficiencies and other issues that can affect yields. This data can help farmers make informed decisions about how to protect their crops. By incorporating AI into these aspects of sustainable agriculture, farmers can achieve high yields, reduce waste and enable more sustainable farming practices, reducing environmental impacts while ensuring efficient food production. Written by Aleksandra Zurowska Related articles: Digital innovation in rural farming / Plant diseases and nanoparticles Project Gallery

Nuclear medicine Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Physics in healthcare 10/02/25, 14:38 Last updated: Published: 06/01/24, 10:47 Nuclear medicine When thinking about a career or what to study in university, many students interested in science think that they have to decide between a more academic route or something more vocational, such as medicine. Whilst both paths are highly rewarding, it is possible to mix the two. An example of this is nuclear medicine, allowing physics students to become healthcare professionals. Nuclear medicine is an area of healthcare that involves introducing a radioactive isotope into the system of a patient in order to image their body. A radioactive isotope is an unstable nucleus that decays and emits radiation. This radiation can then be detected, usually by a tool known as a gamma camera. It sounds dangerous, however it is a fantastic tool that allows us to identify abnormalities, view organs in motion and even prevent further spreading of tumours. So, how does the patient receive the isotope? It depends on the scan they are having! The most common route is injection but it is also possible for the patient to inhale or swallow the isotope. Some hospitals give radioactive scrambled eggs or porridge to the patient in gastric emptying imaging. The radioisotope needs to obey some conditions: ● It must have a reasonable half-life. The half-life is the time it takes for the isotope to decay to half of the original activity. If the half-life is too short, the scan will be useless as nothing will be seen. If it is too long, the patient will be radioactive and spread radiation into their immediate surroundings for a long period of time. ● The isotope must be non-toxic. It cannot harm the patient! ● It must be able to biologically attach to the area of the body that is being investigated. If we want to look at bones, there is no point in giving the patient an isotope that goes straight to the stomach. ● It must have radiation of suitable energy. The radiation must be picked up by the cameras and they will be designed to be most efficient over a specific energy range. For gamma cameras, this is around 100-200 keV. Physicists are absolutely essential in nuclear medicine. They have to understand the properties of radiation, run daily quality checks to ensure the scanners are working, they must calibrate devices so that the correct activity of radiation is being given to patients and so much more. It is essential that the safety of patients and healthcare professionals is the first priority when it comes to radiation. With the right people on the job, safety and understanding is the priority of daily tasks. Nuclear medicine is indeed effective and is implemented into standard medicine thanks to the work of physicists. Written by Megan Martin Related articles: Nuclear fusion / The silent protectors / Radiotherapy Project Gallery

The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Plastics and their environmental impact: a double-edged sword 12/12/24, 12:13 Last updated: Published: 06/11/24, 12:25 The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration Plastics have become an indispensable part of modern life. They are found in everything from electronics and packaging to construction materials and medical equipment. These multipurpose materials, mostly derived from petrochemicals, are successful because they are inexpensive, lightweight, and long-lasting. However, one of the biggest environmental problems of our time is their resilience, which makes them so beneficial. The chemistry that makes plastics strong also makes them extremely resistant to deterioration, which causes environmental damage and widespread contamination. The chemistry behind plastics Most plastics are composed of polymers, which are lengthy chains of monomers—repeating molecular units. Depending on how the molecules are arranged and the chemical additives added during synthesis, these polymers can be made to have a variety of characteristics, including stiffness or flexibility. Hydrocarbons from natural gas or crude oil are polymerised to create common plastics like polypropylene, which is used in food containers, and polyethene, which is used in plastic bags. While these plastics are ideal for their intended purposes —protecting products, storing food, and more, they are extremely resistant to degradation. This is due to their stable carbon-carbon bonds, which natural organisms and processes find difficult to break down. As a result, plastics can remain in the environment for hundreds of years, breaking down into tiny bits rather than entirely dissolving. See Figure 1 . The problem of micro-plastics Plastics in the environment degrade over time into tiny fragments known as microplastics, which are defined as particles smaller than 5 mm in diameter. These microplastics originate from a variety of sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic debris, microbeads used in personal care products, synthetic fibres shed from textiles and industrial processes. They are now widespread in every corner of the globe, from the deepest parts of the oceans to remote mountain ranges, the air we breathe, and even drinking water and food. Microplastics are particularly problematic in marine environments. Marine animals such as fish, birds, and invertebrates often mistake microplastics for food. Once ingested, these particles can accumulate in the animals' digestive systems, leading to malnutrition, physical damage, or even death. More concerning is the potential for these plastics to work their way up the food chain. Predators, including humans, may consume prey that has ingested microplastics, raising concerns about the potential effects on human health. Recent studies have detected microplastics in various human-consumed products, including seafood, table salt, honey, and drinking water. Alarmingly, microplastics have also been found in human organs, blood, and even placentas, highlighting the pervasive nature of this contamination. While the long-term environmental and health effects of microplastics are still not fully understood, research raises significant concerns. Microplastics can carry toxic substances such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals, posing risks to the respiratory, immune, reproductive, and digestive systems. Exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact has been linked to DNA damage, inflammation, and other serious health issues. Biodegradable plastics: a possible solution? One possible solution to plastic pollution is the development of biodegradable plastics, which are engineered to degrade more easily in the environment. These plastics can be created from natural sources such as maize starch or sugarcane, which are turned into polylactic acid (PLA), or from petroleum-based compounds designed to disintegrate more quickly. However, biodegradable polymers do not provide a perfect answer. Many of these materials require certain circumstances, such as high heat and moisture, to degrade effectively. These conditions are more commonly encountered in industrial composting plants than in landfills or natural ecosystems. As a result, many biodegradable plastics can remain in the environment if not properly disposed of. Furthermore, their production frequently necessitates significant quantities of energy and resources, raising questions about whether they are actually more sustainable than traditional plastics. Innovations in plastic recycling Given the limitations of biodegradable polymers, improving recycling technology has become the main issue in the battle against plastic waste. Traditional recycling methods, like mechanical recycling, involve breaking down plastics and remoulding them into new products. However, this process can degrade the material's quality over time. However, this may compromise the material's quality over time. Furthermore, many types of plastics are difficult or impossible to recycle due to variances in chemical structure, contamination, or a lack of adequate machinery. Recent advances have been made to address these issues. Chemical recycling, for example, converts plastics back into their original monomers, allowing them to be re-polymerised into high-quality plastic. This technique has the ability to recycle materials indefinitely without compromising functionality. Another intriguing technique is enzymatic recycling, in which specially built-enzymes break down plastics into their constituent parts at lower temperatures, reducing the amount of energy required for the process. While these technologies provide hope, they are still in their early phases of development and face significant economic and logistical challenges. Expanding recycling infrastructure and developing more effective ways are critical to reduce the amount of plastic waste entering the environment. The way forward The environmental impact of plastics has inspired a global campaign to reduce plastic waste. Governments, industry, and consumers are taking action by prohibiting single-use plastics, increasing recycling efforts, and developing alternatives. However, addressing the plastic problem necessitates a multifaceted strategy. This includes advances in material science, improved waste management systems, and, perhaps most crucially, a transformation in how we perceive and utilise plastics in our daily lives. The chemistry of plastics is both fascinating and dangerous. While they have transformed businesses and increased quality of life, their long-term presence in the environment poses a substantial risk to ecosystems and human health. Rethinking how we make, use, and discard plastics in order to have a more sustainable relationship with these intricate polymers may be more important for the future of plastics than just developing new materials. Written by Laura K Related articles: Genetically-engineered bacteria break down plastic / The environmental impact of EVs Project Gallery

They are on the IUCN red list as 'vulnerable' Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Conservation of marine iguanas 17/10/24, 11:41 Last updated: Published: 06/01/24, 10:40 They are on the IUCN red list as 'vulnerable' The marine iguana ( Amblyrhynchus cristatus ), also known as the sea iguana, is a unique species. It is the world’s only ocean- going lizard. Their main food source is algae; large males can dive to forage for this source, while females feed during low tide. They can be found on rocky shorelines, but also on marshes, mangrove swamps and beaches of the Galapagos. Their range is limited to the Galapagos islands, so they are an isolated species. Currently, they are on the IUCN red list as ‘vulnerable’ with a current population estimated at 200,000, and conservation efforts are needed to stabilise populations. Key threats There are three key threats to iguana populations. The first is invasive species; animals such as pigs, dogs and cats feed on young hatchlings and iguana eggs, which reduces the long-term survival rate of the species. Marine iguanas have not yet developed defence strategies against these predators. Even humans introduce pathogens to the islands that pose a threat to the species, because of their isolated habitat, the marine iguana lacks immunity to many pathogens and so has a higher risk of contracting diseases. Climate change is another key threat. El Niño is a weather event that prevents cold, nutrient-rich waters, that the marine wildlife depends on, from reaching the Eastern Tropical Pacific. This depletes algae populations, and this food drop drastically reduces iguana populations ( Figure 1 ). With global warming, El Niño events are expected to be more prominent and more frequent. In addition, pollution from humans like oil spills and microplastics are damaging their habitat. Current and future conservation methods Under the laws of Ecuador, marine iguanas are completely protected. Their land range is in the Galapagos National Park, and their sea range is within the Galapagos Marine Reserve. They are also listed on the CITES, which ensures monitoring the trade of endangered animals to inhibit damage to their numbers. Sanctuaries are also in place to mitigate against extinction, but their specialised diet is challenging. So, what does the future hold for marine iguanas? The biggest challenge is the distribution of the species. The population is scattered across the different islands of the Galapagos as such, there are at least 11 subspecies. This brings more complications to marine iguana conservation. As these subspecies specialise, it becomes less likely they will breed, thus more difficult to maintain the species population. Introducing education and awareness programmes will better equip us to the dangers faced by marine iguanas and could be a tourism idea for the Galapagos. This species is one of a kind, which is why it is so important for them to be protected.There should be a monitoring scheme, as suggested by MacLeod and Steinfartz, 2016 ( Figure 2 ), but the location of these subspecies makes it difficult to monitor them. However, there was a recent study using drone-based methods which showed promising results ( Figure 3 ). The overarching question remains: do we continue to conserve the current population in the Galapagos, or should we relocate the species to a less endangered habitat. Written by Antonio Rodrigues Related articles: Conservation of Galapagos Tortoises / 55 years of vicuna conservation Project Gallery