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Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Are hydrogen cars the future of the UK? 01/01/25, 13:50 Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen Introduction With the London debut of the first ever hydrogen powered racing car in June 2024, the new off-road racing series, Extreme H, is set to make waves in the motorsport and sustainability industries with its first season in 2025. The first ever hydrogen powered motorsport series was announced in 2022 to replace the carbon-neutral electric racing series Extreme E, with the intention of pioneering the potential of hydrogen fuel cells and diversifying the paths of sustainable mobility. Like its predecessor, Extreme H will continue to race off-road in a spec SUV car, where engineers and machinists from competing teams optimise the SUV for the different range of terrains and topographies. The hydrogen spec SUV, fittingly called the Pioneer 25 ( Figure 1 ), is promising for the rapid advancement of hydrogen fuel research, leading to the integration of hydrogen fuel cells vehicles on local roads. In line with the upcoming ban on the sale of new petrol, diesel, and hybrid cars across the UK in 2035, as well as the UK target of reaching carbon neutral by 2050, the need for sustainable and practical transport options is growing. So far however, electric cars have proved to not be a one-size-fits-all solution. Hydrogen fuel could potentially be the key to filling this gap. EVs vs. HFCVs Working mechanisms HFCVs (Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles): Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. The electricity produced is used to power an electric motor, which drives the car. The only byproduct of this process is water vapour. EVs (Electric Vehicles): A motor is powered directly from a charged battery, and equally produces no harmful emissions. As a result of large investments, electric vehicles have already established a strong footing in the UK market, prompting the declining cost of batteries as well as increasing availability of EV charging points in the UK. However, for many households and commercial uses, electric vehicles are not accessible forms of transport due to key barriers including the extensive charging time (around 8 hours), the weight of batteries for large vehicles, and performance decline in cold weather due to lithium-ion batteries being highly sensitive to temperature. HFCVs directly address these problems and present a sustainable and competitive alternative. As the refuelling process is the same as petrol and diesel cars, fuel tanks can be filled in the space of a few minutes and are notably weight efficient. A heavy-duty electric vehicle on the other hand can require a battery of around 7000 kg. Advantages of HFCVs: Significantly shorter refuelling times Can achieve 300-400 miles on a full tank Maintain performance in cold weather and under heavy loads Lighter and more energy-dense than electric vehicles Disadvantages: Expensive as they’re not yet widely available Lack of refuelling infrastructure The current primary method of hydrogen production produces CO2 as a byproduct Despite the key advantages hydrogen cars offer, there are currently only 2 available models of HFC cars in the UK, including the Toyota Mirai ( Figure 2 ) and the Hyundai Nexo SUV. As a result, there are currently fewer than 20 refuelling stations available nationwide, compared to the many thousands of charging points available across the country for electric vehicles. One of the main reasons why progress in hydrogen fuel production has been so delayed is because hydrogen, despite being the most abundant element in the universe, is only available on earth in compound form and needs to be extracted using chemical processes. The true sustainability of hydrogen production There are currently two main methods to extract hydrogen from nature, including steam-methane reforming and electrolysis. Hydrogen is colour-graded by production method to indicate whether it is renewable. Green/ yellow hydrogen The cleanest process for hydrogen production is electrolysis, where a current separates hydrogen from pure water. If the current is sourced from renewable energy, it’s known as green hydrogen. If it’s connected via the grid, then it’s called yellow hydrogen. The source of electricity is particularly important because the electrolysis process is about 75% efficient, which translates to higher costs yet cleaner air. Grey/ blue hydrogen Hydrogen can also be produced by treating natural gas or methane with hot steam. During this process, the methane splits into its four hydrogen atoms while one carbon atom bonds to oxygen and enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This is known as grey hydrogen. If the carbon dioxide can be captured and stored via direct air capture, it’s called blue hydrogen. About 95% of all hydrogen in Europe is produced by methane steam reforming (grey and blue hydrogen), as it is very energy efficient and uses up lots of natural gas in the process, a resource that is quickly diminishing in importance and value as more and more households switch from gas boilers to heat pumps. Two percent of the world’s carbon emissions comes from the grey hydrogen process to produce ammonia for fertiliser and for steel production. For context, this is almost the same as the entire aviation industry. For HFCVs to be a truly sustainable alternative to combustion engines, green hydrogen via electrolysis (or another clean process) needs to be more widely available and economically viable. The UK’s plans for hydrogen As part of the UK hydrogen strategy ( Figure 3 ), the UK aims to reach up to 10GW or low carbon hydrogen production by 2030 (or equivalent to the amount of gas consumed by 3 million households in the UK annually). The government has allocated £240 million to develop hydrogen production and infrastructure. This is particularly for industry uses in the production of steel and cement, and for heavy goods vehicles (HGVs). Plans were also made to extend the use of hydrogen to heat homes, starting with ‘hydrogen village trials’ in 2025, to inform how 100% hydrogen communities would work, although this has understandably been met with local opposition. With greater research, information, and development into hydrogen for domestic uses, the applications of hydrogen energy may extend from industry and transport to households. As car companies (particularly Toyota, Hyundai, and BMW) continue to develop hydrogen car makes, and further investment is made into increased refuelling infrastructure and hydrogen fuel cell research, as well as with the ban on the sale of new combustion engine cars by 2035, commercial hydrogen cars have the potential to be commonly found on UK roads by 2040. Conclusion For now, HFCVs remain in the early stages of development, however they present a promising opportunity for the UK to diversify its clean transport options, particularly in areas where EV technology faces limitations such as for heavy goods vehicles. Rather than being competitors, it is likely that EVs and HFCVs will soon coexist, with each technology serving different needs. The biggest barrier to the progress of HFCVs currently is developing a full hydrogen refuelling infrastructure, where the gas is produced and then transported to stations across the nation, will take billions of pounds and a number of years to develop. If these initial hurdles could be overcome, HFCV technology can quickly become more practically and financially accessible. Written by Varuna Ganeshamoorthy Related articles: Electric vehicles / Nuclear fusion Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unmasking aggression: a result of personal or social triggers? 01/01/25, 14:02 Aggression has the confluence of individual predisposition and maintenance via social context Introduction Anderson & Bushman (2002) define aggression as behaviour aimed at causing harm to another individual. Aggression can be measured by observing a signal of intention or aggression rating by self or others. The social theories of aggression include Dollard's frustration-aggression theory and Bandura's Social Learning Theory, while the individual factors theories account for personality traits and the influence of alcohol. However, there is no definite answer to whether social or individual factors are most important in explaining human behaviour. The interaction between social and individual factors will be explored to gain a deeper understanding of aggression. Social theories The frustration-aggression hypothesis proposed by Dollard et al. (1939) defines frustration as the emotion that follows when the occurrence of an instigated goal-response is interfered with, in turn leading to anger and aggression. According to this hypothesis, a person’s aggressive tendencies will be more intense the closer the individual is to achieving a goal before an obstacle appears. Many support this hypothesis, including Dill and Anderson (1995), who found that levels of aggression resulting from unjustified frustration were higher than justified frustration because they were caused by situational constraints rather than dispositional qualities. However, Berkowitz (1989) criticises Dollard et al.'s hypothesis, saying that frustration can only produce aggressive behaviour if it causes adverse effects. Due to the wide variety of negative and positive effects of frustration, it is important to revisit and clarify the frustration-aggression hypothesis. Additionally, aggression is often explained by the Social Learning Theory (SLT), proposed by Bandura et al. (1963), which states that aggressive behaviour is a learned behaviour reinforced by imitation and rewards or punishment. Bandura conducted the renowned Bobo Doll Study in 1961, in which children mimicked adult behaviour and attacked the doll after watching the researchers physically and verbally abuse a clown-faced inflatable toy in front of them, making this study extremely influential in understanding the role that families and household dynamics play in human behaviour. Based on this theory, exposure to TV violence can teach aggressive conduct and provide a model of behaviour to base actions upon. In SLT, rather than frustration generating an aggressive drive that can only be reduced by injurious behaviour, aversive stimulation creates general emotional arousal that can result in aggressive behaviour. Therefore, social theories encompass a broad range of disinhibitory factors and provide a broad theory explaining both impulsive and principled aggressive conduct. Individual factors theories Individual differences and variables, like personality traits, have also contributed to the study of aggressive behaviour. Hyatt et al. (2019) stated that certain personality traits such as narcissism and sadism have been meta-analytically linked to aggression shown in a lab setting. The lab paradigm captures aggression as it manifests whilst controlling for confounding variables, such as different types of aggression. However, the lab paradigm lacks construct validity because researchers don’t interpret the subjects’ intentions and motives when operationalising aggression. Further evaluation comes from Bettencourt et al. (2006), who meta-analysed personality dimensions and stated that provocation can cause aggression. They note that individuals with Type A personalities often exhibit impulsivity and emotional reactivity, which are positively associated with aggression. Thus, situational circumstances such as provocation and aggressive cues interact with these personality factors, together shaping the likelihood and intensity of aggressive behaviour. Additionally, the interplay between personality and alcohol can explain aggression. Alcohol reduces inhibitions that regulate 'normal' behaviour and increases aggression. Miller et al. (2009) concluded that alcohol may facilitate aggression in high-trait individuals specifically, those who score high on traits associated with aggression, such as impulsivity, hostility, or a predisposition toward anger—by impairing the drinker’s inhibition. Moreover, further research indicates a strong relationship between alcohol consumption and antisocial personality. Therefore, any discussion of personal factors and personality in aggression would be incomplete without considering the influence of alcohol. The interplay between social and individual trait theories Allen et al. (2018) created a model that encompasses both the social and the individual trait theories. The General Aggression Model (GAM) considers social, biological, and individual factors in aggression. This model consists of three stages: input, appraisal, and action. The input stage determines the likelihood of personal and situational factors causing aggression. For instance, individual differences, such as personality, social rejection, and provocation, are identified as risk factors for aggression. During the appraisal stage, the individual decides how to respond. Their response can be aggressive or non-aggressive, depending on the resources, time, and event. The action then influences the social encounter, which can alter personal and situational factors, leading to those factors restarting the cycle. Hence, this model proposes that individuals learn situations that lead to aggressive outcomes. To reduce aggression and offer treatment, the GAM has been applied to intergroup violence and therefore can be applied to a wide range of situations in real life. Conclusion In conclusion, aggression has the confluence of individual predisposition and maintenance via social context. For instance, as discussed previously, socialisation experiences may contribute to aggressive behaviour in individuals with certain personality traits. Thus, it is difficult to distinguish social and individual factors when explaining aggression, as most human behaviour is a multifaceted phenomenon with multiple determinants. Therefore, future research should be more holistic in the explanations of aggression, encompassing both social and individual factors. Written by Pranavi Rastogi REFERENCES Allen, J. J., Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2018). The general aggression model. Current Opinion in Psychology,19 , 75-80. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.034 Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53 (1), 27-51. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231 Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 3-11 Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106 (1), 59-73. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59 Bettencourt, B.A. et al. (2006) ‘Personality and aggressive behavior under provoking and neutral conditions: A meta-analytic review.’, Psychological Bulletin , 132(5), pp. 751–777. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.751. Dill, J. C., & Anderson, C. A. (1995). Effects of frustration justification on hostile aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 21 (5), 359-369. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1995)21:5<359::aid-ab2480210505> 3.0.co ;2-6 Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. doi:10.1037/10022-000 Hyatt, C. S., Chester, D. S., Zeichner, A., & Miller, J. D. (2019). Analytic flexibility in laboratory aggression paradigms: Relations with personality traits vary (slightly) by operationalization of Aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 45 (4), 377-388. doi:10.1002/ab.21830 Miller, C.A., Parrott, D.J. and Giancola, P.R. (2009) ‘Agreeableness and -related aggression: The mediating effect of trait aggressivity.’, Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology , 17(6), pp. 445–455. doi:10.1037/a0017727. Project Gallery

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Search Index All (250) Other Pages (231) Forum Posts (19) 250 items found Other Pages (231) The dopamine connection | Scientia News Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The dopamine connection How your gut influences your mood and behaviour Introduction to dopamine Dopamine is a neurotransmitter derived from an amino acid called phenylalanine, which must be obtained through the diet, through foods such as fish, meat, dairy and more. Dopamine is produced and released by dopaminergic neurons in the central nervous system and can be found in different brain regions. The neurotransmitter acts via two mechanisms: wiring transmission and volume transmission. In wiring transmission, dopamine is released to the synaptic cleft and acts on postsynaptic dopamine receptors. In volume transmission, extracellular dopamine arrives at neurons other than postsynaptic ones. Through methods such as diffusion, dopamine then reaches receptors in other neurons that are not in direct contact with the cell that has released the neurotransmitter. In both mechanisms, dopamine binds to the receptors, transmitting signals between neurons and affecting mood and behaviour. The link between dopamine and gut health Dopamine has been known to result in positive emotions, including pleasure, satisfaction and motivation, which can be influenced by gut health. Therefore, what you eat and other factors, including motivation, could impact your mood and behaviour. This was proven by a study (Hamamah et al., 2022), which looked at the bidirectional gut-brain connection. The study found that gut microbiota was important in maintaining the concentrations of dopamine via the gut-brain connection, also known as the gut microbiota-brain axis or vagal gut-to-brain axis. This is the communication pathway between the gut microbiota and the brain facilitated by the vagus nerve, and it is important in the neuronal reward pathway, which regulates motivational and emotional states. Activating the vagal gut-to-brain axis, which leads to dopamine release, suggests that modulating dopamine levels could be a potential treatment approach for dopamine-related disorders. Some examples of gut microbiota include Prevotella, Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, Enterococcus, and Ruminococcus , and they can affect dopamine by modulating dopaminergic activity. These gut microbiota are able to produce neurotransmitters, including dopamine, and their functions and bioavailability in the central nervous system and periphery are influenced by the gut-brain axis. Gut dysbiosis is the disturbance of the healthy intestinal flora, and it can lead to dopamine-related disorders, including Parkinson's disease, ADHD, depression, anxiety, and autism. Gut microbes that produce butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid, positively impact dopamine and contribute to reducing symptoms and effects seen in neurodegenerative disorders. Dopamine as a treatment It is important to understand the link between dopamine and gut health, as this could provide information about new therapeutic targets and improve current methods that have been used to prevent and restore deficiencies in dopamine function in different disorders. Most cells in the immune system contain dopamine receptors, allowing processes such as antigen presentation, T-cell activation, and inflammation to be regulated. Further research into this could open up a new possibility for dopamine to be used as a medication to treat diseases by changing the activity of dopamine receptors. Therefore, dopamine is important in various physiological processes, both in the central nervous and immune systems. For example, studies have shown that schizophrenia can be treated with antipsychotic medications which target dopamine neurotransmission. In addition, schizophrenia has also been treated by targeting the dysregulation (decreasing the amount) of dopamine transmission. Studies have shown promising results regarding dopamine being used as a form of treatment. Nevertheless, further research is needed to understand the interactions between dopamine, motivation and gut health and explore how this knowledge can be used to create medications to treat conditions. Conclusion The bidirectional gut-brain connection shows the importance of gut microbiota in controlling dopamine levels. This connection influences mood and behaviour but also has the potential to lead to new and innovative dopamine-targeted treatments being developed (for conditions including dopamine-related disorders). For example, scientists could target and manipulate dopamine receptors in the immune system to regulate the above mentioned processes: antigen presentation, T-cell activation, and inflammation. While current research has shown some promising results, further investigations are needed to better comprehend the connection between gut health and dopamine levels. Nevertheless, through consistent studies, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of this mechanism to see how changes in gut microbiota could affect dopamine regulation and influence mood and behaviour. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: the gut microbiome / Crohn's disease Project Gallery How does moving houses impact your health and well-being? | Scientia News Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How does moving houses impact your health and well-being? Evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of gentrification in the context of health Introduction According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Another way to define health is an individual being in a condition of equilibrium within themselves and the surrounding environment, which includes their social interactions and other factors. Reflecting on historical views of health, ancient Indian and Chinese medicine and society in Ancient Greece thought of health as harmony between a person and their environment, which underlines the cohesion between the soul and body; this is similar to the WHO’s definition of health. Considering these ideas, one key determinant of health is gentrification (see Figure 1 ). It was first defined in 1964 by British sociologist Ruth Glass, who witnessed the dilapidated houses in the London Borough of Islington being taken over and renovated by middle-class proprietors. The broader consequences of gentrification include enhanced living conditions for the residents, differences in ownership prerequisites, increased prices of land and houses, and transformations in the social class structure. Also, these changes cause lower-income inhabitants to be pushed out or go to poorer neighbourhoods, and the conditions in these neighbourhoods, which can include racial separation, lead to inequities and discrepancies in health. For example, a systematic review discovered that elderly and Black residents were affected more by gentrification compared to younger and White citizens; this highlights the importance of support and interventions for specific populations during urban renewal. Given the knowledge provided above, this article will delve further into the advantages and disadvantages of gentrification in the context of health outcomes. Advantages of gentrification Gentrification does have its benefits. Firstly, it is positively linked with collective efficacy, which is about enhancing social cohesion within neighbourhoods and maintaining etiquette; this has health benefits for residents, like decreased rates of obesity, sexually transmitted diseases, and all-cause mortality. Another advantage of gentrification is the possibility of economic growth because as more affluent tenants move into specific neighbourhoods, they can bring companies, assets, and an increased demand for local goods and services, creating more jobs in the area for residents. Additionally, gentrification can be attributed to decreased crime rates in newly developed areas because the inflow of wealthier citizens often conveys a more substantial sense of community and investment in regional security standards. Therefore, this revitalised feeling of safety can make these neighbourhoods more appealing to existing and new inhabitants, which leads to further economic development. Moreover, reducing crime can improve health outcomes by reducing stress and anxiety levels among residents, for example. As a result, the community's general well-being can develop, leading to healthier lifestyle choices and more lively neighbourhoods. Furthermore, the longer a person lives in a gentrifying neighbourhood, the better their self-reported health, which does not differ by race or ethnicity, as observed in Los Angeles. Disadvantages of gentrification However, it is also essential to mention the drawbacks of gentrification, which are more numerous. In a qualitative study involving elderly participants, for example, one of them stated that, “The cost of living increases, but the money that people get by the end of the month is the same, this concerning those … even retired people, and people receiving the minimum wage, the minimum wage increases x every year, isn’t it? But it is not enough”. Elderly residents in Barcelona faced comparable challenges of residential displacement between 2011 and 2017 due to younger adults with higher incomes and those pursuing university education moving into the city. These cases spotlight how gentrification can raise the cost of living without an associated boost in earnings, making it problematic for people with lower incomes or vulnerable individuals to live in these areas. Likewise, a census from gentrified neighbourhoods in Pittsburgh showed that participants more typically conveyed negative health changes and reduced resources. Additionally, one study examined qualitative data from 14 cities in Europe and North America and commonly noticed that gentrification negatively affects the health of historically marginalised communities. These include threats to housing and monetary protection, socio-cultural expulsion, loss of services and conveniences, and raised chances of criminal behaviour and compromised public security. This can be equally observed during green gentrification, where longtime historically marginalised inhabitants feel excluded from green or natural spaces, and are less likely to use them compared to newer residents. To mitigate these negative impacts of gentrification, inclusive urban renewal guidelines should be drafted that consider vulnerable populations to boost health benefits through physical and social improvements. The first step would be to provide residents with enough information and establish trust between them and the local authorities because any inequality in providing social options dramatically affects people’s health-related behaviours. Intriguingly, gentrification has been shown to increase the opportunity for exposure to tick-borne pathogens by populations staying in place, displacement within urban areas, and suburban removal. This increases tick-borne disease risk, which poses a health hazard to impacted residents ( Figure 2 ). As for mental health, research has indicated that residing in gentrified areas is linked to greater levels of anxiety and depression in older adults and children. Additionally, one study found young people encountered spatial disconnection and affective exclusion due to gentrification and felt disoriented by the quickness of transition. Therefore, all of these problems associated with gentrification reveal that it can harm public health and well-being, aggravating disparities and creating feelings of isolation and aloneness in impacted communities. Conclusion Gentrification is a complicated and controversial approach that has noteworthy consequences for the health of neighbourhoods. Its advantages include enhanced infrastructure and boosted economic prospects, potentially leading to fairer access to healthcare services and improved health outcomes for residents. However, gentrification often leads to removal and the loss of affordable housing, which can harm the health of vulnerable populations. Therefore, it is vital for policymakers and stakeholders to carefully evaluate the likely health effects of gentrification and enforce alleviation strategies to safeguard the well-being of all citizens (see Table 1 ). Written by Sam Jarada Related article: A perspective on well-being REFERENCES WHO. Health and Well-Being. Who.int . 2015. Available from: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/major-themes/health-and-well-being Sartorius N. The meanings of health and its promotion. Croatian Medical Journal. 2006;47(4):662–4. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2080455/ Krahn GL, Robinson A, Murray AJ, Havercamp SM, Havercamp S, Andridge R, et al. It’s time to Reconsider How We Define Health: Perspective from disability and chronic condition. Disability and Health Journal. 2021 Jun;14(4):101129. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1936657421000753 Svalastog AL, Donev D, Jahren Kristoffersen N, Gajović S. Concepts and Definitions of Health and health-related Values in the Knowledge Landscapes of the Digital Society. Croatian Medical Journal. 2017 Dec;58(6):431–5. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5778676/ Foryś I. Gentrification on the Example of Suburban Parts of the Szczecin Urban Agglomeration. remav. 2013 Sep 1;21(3):5–14. Uribe-Toril J, Ruiz-Real J, de Pablo Valenciano J. Gentrification as an Emerging Source of Environmental Research. Sustainability. 2018 Dec 19;10(12):4847. Schnake-Mahl AS, Jahn JL, Subramanian SV, Waters MC, Arcaya M. Gentrification, Neighborhood Change, and Population Health: a Systematic Review. Journal of Urban Health. 2020 Jan 14;97(1):1–25. Project Gallery The chemistry of an atomic bomb | Scientia News Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The chemistry of an atomic bomb Julius Oppenheimer Julius Robert Oppenheimer, often credited with leading the development of the atomic bomb, played a significant role in its creation in the early 1940s. However, it is essential to recognize the collaborative effort of many scientists, engineers, and researchers who contributed to the project. The history and chemistry of the atomic bomb are indeed fascinating, shedding light on the scientific advancements that made it possible. The destructive power of an atomic bomb stems from the rapid release of energy resulting from the splitting, or fission, of fissile atomic nuclei in its core. Isotopes such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239 are selected for their ability to undergo fission readily and sustain a self-sustaining chain reaction, leading to the release of an immense amount of energy. The critical mass of fissionable material required for detonation ensures that the neutrons produced during fission have a high probability of impacting other nuclei and initiating a chain reaction. To facilitate a controlled release of energy, neutron moderation plays a crucial role in the functioning of an atomic bomb. Neutrons emitted during fission have high velocities, making them less likely to be absorbed by other fissile material. However, by employing a moderator material such as heavy water (deuterium oxide) or graphite, these high-speed neutrons can be slowed down. Slowing down the neutrons increases the likelihood of their absorption by fissile material, enhancing the efficiency of the chain reaction and the release of energy. The sheer magnitude of the energy released by atomic bombs is staggering. For example, one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of uranium-235 can undergo complete fission, producing an amount of energy equivalent to that released by 17,000 tons (17 kilotons) of TNT. This tremendous release of energy underscores the immense destructive potential of atomic weapons. It is essential to note that the development of the atomic bomb represents a confluence of scientific knowledge and technological advancements, with nuclear chemistry serving as a foundational principle. The understanding of nuclear fission, the critical mass requirement, and the implosion design were key factors in the creation of the atomic bomb. Exploring the chemistry behind this devastating weapon not only provides insights into the destructive capabilities of atomic energy but also emphasises the responsibility that accompanies its use. In conclusion, while Oppenheimer's contributions to the development of the atomic bomb are significant, it is crucial to acknowledge the collective effort that led to its creation. The chemistry behind atomic bombs, from the selection of fissile isotopes to neutron moderation, plays a pivotal role in harnessing the destructive power of nuclear fission. Understanding the chemistry of atomic weapons highlights the remarkable scientific achievements and reinforces the need for responsible use of atomic energy. By Navnidhi Sharma Project Gallery View All Forum Posts (19) Quizzes #3 In Questions & Answers · 15 February 2023 Form of energy which is due to an object/ particle's motion? A. Kinetic energy B. Gravitational potential energy C. Potential energy D. Thermal energy 0 1 16 Quizzes #5 In Questions & Answers · 4 March 2023 0 1 22 Forum rules In General Discussion · 13 December 2022 We want everyone to get the most out of this community, so we ask that you please read and follow these guidelines: Respect each other Keep posts relevant to the forum topic No spamming 1 0 6 View All

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