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Uncovering the role of IGF2BP1 in neuroblastoma and its potential as a therapeutic target Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Novel neuroblastoma driver: a potential target for therapeutics Last updated: 24/06/25, 14:16 Published: 03/07/25, 07:00 Uncovering the role of IGF2BP1 in neuroblastoma and its potential as a therapeutic target Introduction Neuroblastoma is a complicated cancer of the nervous system that primarily affects children, particularly those under the age of five. It is characterised by the development of tumours originating from neural crest cells involved in the formation of the adrenal glands and sympathetic nervous system. As the most common extracranial solid tumour in infancy and childhood, neuroblastoma represents a significant challenge in paediatric oncology due to its complex biology and variable prognosis. Recent advancements have brought hope by identifying a novel genetic driver, IGF2BP1 , implicated in the aggressive progression of the disease. The University Medicine Halle team's breakthrough in pinpointing IGF2BP1 's role is significant. It paves the way for understanding the molecular underpinnings of neuroblastoma. Additionally, it opens the door to potentially transformative targeted therapies. By elucidating the mechanisms through which IGF2BP1 drives tumour growth—specifically through its interaction with oncogenes such as MYCN —researchers are making significant progress. They are closer than ever to devising strategies that could arrest the disease's development. This progress could significantly improve patient outcomes. The importance of this discovery cannot be overblown, as it provides a crucial target for therapeutic intervention, potentially leading to the development of more effective, less toxic treatments. This is a significant step towards not only enhancing survival rates but also the quality of life for affected children worldwide. IGF2BP1: a key player in neuroblastoma and potentially other tumours The IGF2BP1 gene has emerged as a crucial element in neuroblastoma pathogenesis. It functions as an RNA-binding protein that enhances the stability and translation of mRNA transcripts. These transcripts encode oncogenic proteins, significantly impacting tumour behaviour. Oncogenes are genes that have the potential to cause cancer by promoting uncontrolled cell division and tumour growth. The activation of IGF2BP1 leads to the increased expression of several key oncogenes, including BIRC5 and MYCN. These are known to drive the growth and malignancy of neuroblastoma cells. This discovery marks a substantial leap in understanding the molecular dynamics at play within neuroblastoma cells, offering a novel avenue for targeted intervention. By stabilising and enhancing the translation of mRNA transcripts encoding these oncogenic proteins, IGF2BP1 plays a crucial role in promoting tumour growth and malignancy. Understanding this interaction provides a strategic point of intervention, potentially leading to targeted therapies that could inhibit the harmful effects of IGF2BP1 and significantly improve patient outcomes. Moreover, the IGF2BP1 role extends beyond neuroblastoma. Its expression has been detected in various other cancers, where it similarly promotes tumour growth and survival. For example, IGF2BP1 has been implicated in the progression of colorectal, breast, and lung cancers, suggesting a broader oncogenic role. This consistent pattern across different cancers underscores its potential as a universal therapeutic target. The broad impact of IGF2BP1 on multiple tumour types also highlights the potential for developing cross-cancer therapeutic strategies. By targeting IGF2BP1 , it may be possible to design treatments that are effective against multiple forms of cancer, thus maximising the impact of research and development efforts in oncology. This could lead to the creation of a new class of anticancer drugs that inhibit IGF2BP1 , offering hope to patients with various malignancies. However, targeting this gene presents challenges. IGF2BP1 is involved in beneficial processes such as normal cell growth and repair. For instance, it plays a role in stabilising mRNA during cell division, which is crucial for tissue regeneration. Inhibiting IGF2BP1 might impair these processes, leading to issues such as poor wound healing or reduced immune function. Additionally, its inhibition could potentially affect other normal cellular functions, posing a risk of unintended side effects. Thus, while targeting IGF2BP1 holds promise, understanding its role in healthy cells is essential to developing therapies that are both effective and safe. Research into IGF2BP1’s mechanisms has also revealed that it might be instrumental in initiating an “oncogene storm”. This is a rapid and intense expression of oncogenes that drives aggressive tumour growth. It also leads to resistance to conventional therapies. Conventional therapies typically refer to standard cancer treatments such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery. For example, chemotherapy drugs like doxorubicin and cisplatin are designed to kill rapidly dividing cells, but the oncogene storm can enable tumour cells to become resistant to these drugs by enhancing their survival mechanisms. Similarly, radiation therapy aims to damage the DNA of cancer cells, but the increased expression of oncogenes can repair this damage more effectively, allowing the tumour to persist. This understanding provides a crucial insight into how cancer cells exploit molecular mechanisms to thrive and evade treatment, thereby pointing to strategic points of intervention. Current research is exploring how targeted therapies can be developed to specifically inhibit the effects of the oncogene storm, potentially overcoming resistance to these conventional treatments. This understanding provides a crucial insight into how cancer cells exploit molecular mechanisms to thrive and evade treatment, thereby pointing to strategic points of intervention. MYCN’s role in neuroblastoma: a pivotal transcriptional driver MYCN is a member of the MYC family of transcription factors, which play critical roles in cell cycle progression, apoptosis, and cellular transformation. In neuroblastoma, MYCN is particularly notorious for its strong association with high-risk disease and poor clinical outcomes, making it a main point of cancer research. High-risk disease in neuroblastoma is characterised by factors such as advanced stage at diagnosis, unfavourable histology, and the presence of MYCN amplification. For example, Stage 4 neuroblastoma, where the cancer has spread to distant lymph nodes, bone, bone marrow, liver, skin, or other organs, is considered high-risk. Poor clinical outcomes in these cases often include a lower survival rate and a higher likelihood of relapse after treatment. Studies have shown that children with MYCN -amplified neuroblastoma have a significantly lower 5-year survival rate compared to those without MYCN amplification. This is because MYCN amplification drives rapid tumour growth and metastasis, making the cancer more aggressive and difficult to treat. Additionally, these patients often exhibit resistance to conventional therapies such as chemotherapy and radiation, which further complicates treatment and negatively impacts prognosis. Specific examples of poor clinical outcomes include frequent relapses and the development of resistance to multiple lines of therapy. Despite intensive treatment regimens, including high-dose chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplant and radiation therapy, the overall survival rate for high-risk neuroblastoma remains below 50%. This bare reality underscores the critical need for novel therapeutic strategies that can effectively target MYCN and improve outcomes for patients with high-risk neuroblastoma. In general, MYCN amplifies in approximately 20% to 25% of neuroblastoma cases, leading to a dramatic increase in its protein expression. This overexpression is a known marker for aggressive disease and has been linked to rapid tumour progression and resistance to standard therapies. Standard therapies for neuroblastoma typically include a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. For instance, chemotherapy drugs such as cyclophosphamide and vincristine are commonly used to shrink tumours before surgical removal. However, the overexpression of MYCN can enhance the tumour’s ability to repair DNA damage caused by these treatments, making them less effective. Radiation therapy, which uses high-energy particles to destroy cancer cells, also becomes less effective as MYCN overexpression promotes survival pathways within the cells. The interaction between MYCN and IGF2BP1 creates a formidable axis that drives the malignant characteristics of neuroblastoma cells. Functionally, MYCN amplifies the effects of IGF2BP1 by synergising its activity. This synergy is evident in their mutual enhancement of oncogenic signalling pathways. MYCN enhances the transcription of numerous genes involved in cellular proliferation and survival. While IGF2BP1 stabilises the mRNAs of these genes, ensuring their sustained expression and activity within the cell. This interaction not only accelerates tumour growth but also contributes to the genomic instability that is characteristic of high-risk neuroblastoma. Besides, the role of MYCN extends beyond merely amplifying gene expression. It fundamentally alters the cellular landscape by modulating the expression of genes involved in metabolism, differentiation, and angiogenesis, thus shaping the tumour microenvironment to favour cancer growth and metastasis. Recent studies have also uncovered MYCN ’s role in repressing the transcription of genes involved in cellular differentiation, thereby maintaining the cells in a more primitive, stem-like state that is conducive to cancer progression. The discovery of the “oncogene storm”, a phenomenon triggered by the cooperative action of MYCN and IGF2BP1 , highlights the critical need for targeted therapeutic strategies that can disrupt this deleterious synergy. By focusing on this interaction, researchers aim to develop novel treatments that can more effectively curb the aggressive nature of MYCN -amplified neuroblastoma. The potential for therapeutic intervention The discovery of the IGF2BP1 and MYCN interaction not only deepens our understanding of neuroblastoma pathogenesis but also marks a significant step towards developing targeted therapeutic interventions. The small molecule BTYNB , which disrupts this interaction, has shown promising results in preclinical studies. By inhibiting the oncogene-enhancing effect of IGF2BP1 on MYCN , BTYNB effectively reduces tumour growth and could potentially improve the efficacy of existing treatment protocols. Current research is exploring the application of BTYNB in combination with other therapeutic agents. Combining BTYNB with existing chemotherapy drugs or novel targeted therapies may enhance treatment efficacy and prevent the onset of resistance. This combinatorial approach could be particularly effective in high-risk neuroblastoma cases, where conventional treatments often fall short. Additionally, understanding the pharmacodynamics and optimising the dosing schedule of BTYNB are critical areas of ongoing research to maximise its therapeutic potential and minimise side effects. This includes studying how the drug is absorbed, distributed, metabolised, and excreted in the body to ensure optimal efficacy. For instance, researchers are investigating the timing and dosage that maximise tumour reduction while minimising toxicity. Examples include adjusting the frequency of administration to maintain therapeutic levels and combining BTYNB with other agents to enhance its effects. These efforts aim to maximise its therapeutic potential and minimise side effects. Furthermore, the ability of BTYNB to impair tumour growth without the severe side effects associated with conventional chemotherapy presents an opportunity to reduce the treatment burden on patients. This aspect is crucial, especially in paediatric oncology, where the long-term health of young patients is a significant concern. Future therapeutic strategies could see BTYNB becoming part of a first-line treatment for neuroblastoma, either as a standalone therapy or in combination with other treatments. Future directions The ground-breaking discovery of the IGF2BP1 - MYCN interaction in neuroblastoma provides solid initial results with BTYNB , and the identification of IGF2BP1 as a key driver in neuroblastoma opens several avenues for future research. One critical area involves further elucidation of the molecular mechanisms underlying IGF2BP1 ’s influence on neuroblastoma progression. Continued research is necessary to dissect the finer details of the molecular pathways modulated by IGF2BP1 and MYCN . This includes understanding the downstream effects of their interaction and identifying other molecular players involved in the signalling cascade. Insights from such studies could reveal novel personalised therapeutic targets and help in designing drugs that can more precisely disrupt these pathways. Additionally, given the role of IGF2BP1 in various cancers, research should also explore its potential as a universal cancer target. Comparative studies across different cancer types could identify shared patterns of IGF2BP1 activity, offering opportunities to develop broad-spectrum anticancer strategies. Developing targeted delivery mechanisms that can direct BTYNB or other similar drugs specifically to neuroblastoma cells could significantly enhance therapeutic outcomes and reduce side effects. Research into nanoparticle-based delivery systems or conjugated molecules that seek out cancer-specific markers could be particularly fruitful. Additionally, investigating other compounds that can target IGF2BP1 or MYCN could provide alternative therapeutic options or complementary strategies to overcome resistance. Strategic integration of new therapies into existing treatment protocols needs careful planning. This includes determining the optimal sequencing of therapies and identifying which combinations are most effective for various subtypes of neuroblastoma based on genetic characteristics. Clinical trials are essential to transitioning laboratory findings to clinical applications. Designing and implementing rigorous clinical trials to test the efficacy and safety of BTYNB , both as a monotherapy and in combination with other therapies, is crucial. These trials should incorporate robust biomarker studies to tailor therapies based on genetic profiles and monitor patient responses more effectively. Lastly, addressing the challenge of drug delivery remains paramount. Developing drug delivery systems that can effectively target tumour sites with minimal off-target effects could improve the therapeutic index of treatments like BTYNB . Research in this area will not only benefit neuroblastoma patients but also advance the field of targeted cancer therapy in general. Importantly, given the young age of neuroblastoma patients, it is imperative to consider long-term outcomes and quality of life in therapeutic development. Efforts must be made to ensure that new treatments are not only effective but also minimise the long-term health impacts often associated with aggressive cancer therapies. Conclusion The identification of IGF2BP1 as a pivotal driver in the pathogenesis of neuroblastoma, particularly in concert with MYCN , marks a significant milestone in paediatric oncology. This discovery not only enhances our molecular understanding of one of the most challenging childhood cancers but also sets the stage for the development of targeted therapeutic strategies that could revolutionise treatment paradigms. The potential of BTYNB , a small molecule inhibitor that disrupts the IGF2BP1 - MYCN interaction, underscores the power of targeted therapy. In preclinical models, BTYNB has demonstrated a promising ability to inhibit tumour growth effectively and with fewer side effects compared to traditional chemotherapy. Such advancements herald a new era in treatment where therapy is not only about fighting the disease but also preserving the quality of life for the youngest patients. However, the journey from laboratory to clinic is filled with challenges that require innovative solutions and collaborative efforts. These challenges include ensuring the safety and efficacy of new treatments, overcoming drug resistance, and achieving precise delivery to tumour sites. The future of neuroblastoma treatment lies in the ability to refine these emerging therapies through rigorous research, optimise their delivery, and integrate them seamlessly into existing treatment protocols. Additionally, the exploration of IGF2BP1 's role across various cancer types may provide insights that transcend paediatric oncology, offering new hope for comprehensive cancer treatment strategies. As the research advances, it will be crucial to maintain a multidisciplinary approach, combining the expertise of molecular biologists, clinical researchers, and pharmacologists to ensure that these new discoveries translate into safe and effective treatments. The engagement of global health communities in these efforts will be essential to address the diverse and complex nature of cancer treatment across different populations. All in all, the path forward is marked by significant potential and profound responsibility—to continue the search for knowledge and to translate that knowledge into therapies that not only extend life but also enhance the lived experiences of patients during and after treatment. With continued dedication and innovation, the future for children battling neuroblastoma looks increasingly hopeful. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Cancer on the move (metastasis) REFERENCES Hagemann, S., Misiak, D., Bell, J. L., Fuchs, T., Lederer, M. I., Bley, N., Hämmerle, M., Ghazy, E., Sippl, W., Schulte, J. H., & Hüttelmaier, S. (2023). IGF2BP1 induces neuroblastoma via a druggable feedforward loop with MYCN promoting 17q oncogene expression. Molecular cancer , 22 (1), 88. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12943-023-01792-0 Liu, Y., Guo, Q., Yang, H., Zhang, X. W., Feng, N., Wang, J. K., Liu, T. T., Zeng, K. W., & Tu, P. F. (2022). Allosteric Regulation of IGF2BP1 as a Novel Strategy for the Activation of Tumor Immune Microenvironment. ACS central science , 8 (8), 1102–1115. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.2c00107 Project Gallery

Cultural beliefs, stigma, family values and more, inhibit open discussion of mental health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Addressing mental health within the South Asian community Last updated: 27/11/25, 15:14 Published: 22/05/25, 07:00 Cultural beliefs, stigma, family values and more, inhibit open discussion of mental health Mental health is a critical aspect of human life, yet it remains a deeply taboo subject within the South Asian community. Despite the growing awareness in mainstream discourse, many South Asians—especially those living in diasporic communities such as the UK, the US, and Canada—continue to face significant barriers when it comes to recognising, understanding, and seeking help for mental health concerns. But why does this silence continue? The answer lies in a combination of cultural beliefs, stigma, family values, societal expectations, and a general lack of education, especially among the older generations. Unlike Western cultures, which tend to emphasise individualism, South Asian societies often focus on collectivism, where the success and well-being of the family take precedence over the individual. This cultural foundation has both strengths and challenges. While it preaches community and support, it also discourages expressions of emotional vulnerability, especially when that vulnerability may be perceived as bringing shame or dishonour to the family. Mental health is often viewed as a personal weakness, a spiritual failing, or something that reflects poorly on one’s upbringing or family reputation. A survey conducted by the NHS in the UK revealed that 35% of South Asian youth aged 18–24 reported experiencing some form of mental health issue, compared to 30% of White British youth. While these figures suggest a slightly higher incidence, what is more alarming is the disparity in access to care and treatment. Many South Asians are less likely to seek help due to fears of being perceived as 'crazy' or weak. In some cases, mental health symptoms are dismissed as temporary mood swings, spiritual crises, or simply a lack of willpower. A study published by the Mental Health Foundation (2020) found that only 32% of South Asians surveyed had a functional understanding of mental health, compared to 60% of the general UK population. This suggests that stigma is caused by a lack of knowledge, which prevents early intervention and exacerbates untreated conditions. Among those who recognise they have a problem, there is often a reluctance to seek professional help, particularly from psychologists or psychiatrists. Instead, some may turn to spiritual leaders or rely solely on familial support, both of which, while culturally significant, may not always offer the necessary therapeutic intervention. One of the major mental health concerns within the South Asian community is depression and anxiety, and these conditions often go undiagnosed. Research from the Centre for Mental Health has indicated that South Asian individuals are more likely to report symptoms of depression and anxiety than their White counterparts, but are less likely to receive treatment. According to a 2022 study by Public Health England, South Asian women are 1.5 times more likely to suffer from common mental health disorders, such as anxiety and depression, but only 13% accessed mental health services compared to 25% of White British women. Many culturally specific factors contribute to higher rates of anxiety and depression in South Asian communities. These include intergenerational trauma, immigration stress, identity conflict, and pressures related to marriage, family reputation, and academic or career success. Young South Asians often find themselves navigating between traditional family expectations and Western societal norms, leading to identity struggles that can trigger chronic stress and anxiety. Additionally, gender roles in South Asian cultures often impose strict expectations on behaviour. Women may be discouraged from voicing emotional distress, as they are expected to be nurturing and self-sacrificing. Men, on the other hand, are often pressured to appear strong and unemotional, which leads to a culture where expressing vulnerability is equated with failure. These rigid expectations prevent both genders from openly discussing their struggles or seeking help. Barriers to accessing mental health services are not only cultural but also structural. Many South Asians, particularly first-generation immigrants, may face language barriers when communicating with healthcare providers. There is also a lack of culturally competent therapists who understand the nuances of South Asian traditions, values, and family structures. Without representation or relatability, individuals may feel misunderstood or alienated by the mental healthcare system. Despite these challenges, there is hope. The rise of South Asian mental health advocates, community-based initiatives, and culturally tailored therapy programs is slowly helping to dismantle stigma. Social media has also played a vital role in bringing these conversations to the forefront, especially among Gen Z and Millennials. Many people are now speaking out and sharing their stories and experiences, which helps shift the narrative within the South Asian Community. We can help break the stigma surrounding mental health in the South Asian community by raising awareness, educating others, and normalising conversations around emotional wellbeing. It starts at the grassroots level: in homes, schools, religious institutions, and workplaces. Encouraging open dialogue and fostering environments where individuals feel safe to share their experiences without judgment is key. More importantly, we must validate the struggles of those suffering from mental health issues—telling them that it is okay to not be okay, and that seeking help is a sign of strength, not weakness. Furthermore, the government and health services can do more! They should invest in culturally sensitive mental health resources, including multilingual therapy options and outreach programs tailored specifically for South Asian populations. In conclusion, addressing mental health within the South Asian community requires a collective effort to challenge outdated norms, educate people across all age groups, and improve access to inclusive and empathetic mental healthcare. Depression, anxiety, and other mental illnesses are not signs of weakness; they are real, treatable conditions that deserve compassion and support. Only by acknowledging this and working together can we begin to transform the narrative and create a healthier, more open future for the South Asian community, letting the future generation have a safe and open space to talk and get help for their mental health! Written by Rajeevan Sinnathurai ------- Scientia News thanks Rajeevan of Open Talk, for this enlightening piece on mental health in the South Asian Community. Connect with Open Talk on Instagram and TikTok . ------- Related articles: Mental health awareness / Imposter syndrome / Anxiety / South Asian epigenetics / Global health injustices- Kashmir , Bangladesh , Sri Lankan Tamils REFERENCES NHS Digital. (2021). Mental Health of Children and Young People in England . Mental Health Foundation. (2020). Mental Health in the South Asian Community . Centre for Mental Health. (2022). Race and Mental Health Inequalities . Public Health England. (2022). Mental Health Services Use by Ethnic Groups in the UK . Project Gallery

Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epilepsy 101: what are the different types of epilepsy seizures? Last updated: 29/04/25, 16:09 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness After previously covering a very generic overview into epilepsy – what it is, its different types, methods of diagnosis and treatment, it would be a good idea to really delve deeper into the different types of seizures. Are they just convulsions, shaking and losing consciousness? Or is there more to it? Read more to find out! But before we begin, it is important to cover some key terms and prefixes, to help us with understanding what the different types of seizures are: Myo-: muscle Clonic: repeated jerking Tonic: muscle stiffness Atonic: muscles become limp Motor: movement From our previous article , we know that the two main types of epilepsy are generalised and focal epilepsy. Each type of epilepsy has different types of seizures associated with it. Generalised epilepsy – it consists of 2 main types of seizures (motor and non-motor seizures): 1) Generalised Motor Seizures: Involves changes in muscle activity, where they either move abnormally, or don’t move at all. This includes: Myoclonic seizures: sudden body jerks (especially the hands or the legs) as if someone had been jolted with electricity. Tonic - Clonic (Grand mal) seizures: This seizure has 2 main phases – a tonic and clonic stage:- Initial tonic (stiffness) phase is followed by a clonic (repeated, uncontrolled jerking of the limbs) phase. During the 'tonic' phase, the person may become unconscious and fall to the floor. In the 'clonic' phase, the person might struggle to breathe or uncontrollably bite their tongue. This is probably the ‘typical’ seizure everyone thinks of when they hear about epilepsy! Atonic seizures: The muscles become limp, and the person might even collapse. 2) Generalised non-motor seizures: They are usually also referred to as 'absence seizures', and they don’t include any changes in muscle activity. Instead, the person might stare into space, and might have a pause in activity, or a repetition in movements, such as lip-smacking for around 15 seconds or less. The individual may not remember what happened during the seizure; however their normal state of alertness is regained immediately after. People might easily confuse this type of seizure with daydreaming! Focal epilepsy- This is split into 4 main types based on whether the person is aware of their seizure, and if there are any changes in muscle activity involved: 1) Focal awareness seizures: Patient is fully aware of what is happening during a seizure, even if they are unable to move or respond. Some people might experience an "aura" as a warning before this seizure. This could feel like a strange sensation, fear, euphoria, a sense of déjà vu, feeling that something bad is about to happen, visual changes or even tingling or stiffness in their body. 2) Focal impaired awareness seizures: The person isn’t aware of their seizure, nor can they remember having it, and can’t respond to anyone during the seizure. The seizure can include movements such as moving their hands and legs or making random noises. 3) Focal Motor Seizures: involves random muscle activity, such as twitching, stiffness, limpness, or other movements such as rubbing hands, lip-smacking and walking around. 4) Focal Non-motor Seizures: no muscle movements or stiffness (as this is a non-motor seizure), but there is a change in a patient’s feelings and thoughts, causing strange feelings, a racing heart, and waves of heat or cold. Now that we’ve covered the key seizures, what triggers epilepsy seizures, causing those lights in the city (which in this case, is our brain) to start flickering or shut completely? There are many different causes, and they vary from one person to another. They could include: Stress Lack of sleep Drinking alcohol Consuming illegal drugs Not taking your anti-seizure medication (ASMs) Some types of medication Menstrual Cycle and hormonal changes Flashing lights (for individuals with photosensitive epilepsy) Photosensitive epilepsy is epilepsy that is triggered by flashing of lights, causing seizures such as myoclonic seizures. It is interesting to see how many people hold the misconception that seizures are mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness, when in fact there’s a huge variety of seizure! It is important that we know what different seizures look like, so we could help these individuals appropriately. Don’t be afraid to read further about epilepsy and seizures, and how to help people out there! Written by Hanin Salem Related articles: Epilepsy 101 (overview) / Traumatic brain injuries REFERENCES Dhanyamraju, S. (2019). What is a Seizure? - Lone Star Neurology . [online] Lone Star Neurology. Available at: https://lonestarneurology.net/seizures/seizures/ . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Ditki medical & biological sciences. (n.d.). Neurological System Glossary: Tonic-Clonic Seizure . [online] Available at: https://ditki.com/course/neurological-system/glossary/eeg-findings/tonic-clonic-seizure . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Epilepsy action (2022). Focal seizures | Epilepsy Action . [online] www.epilepsy.org.uk . Available at: https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/seizures/focal-seizures [Accessed 18 Dec. 2024]. John Hopkins Medicine (n.d.). Generalized Seizures . [online] Available at: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/epilepsy/generalized-seizures#:~:text=Generalized%20seizures%20include%20absence%2C%20atonic [Accessed 17 Dec.2024]. NHS (2020). Symptoms - Epilepsy . [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/epilepsy/symptoms/ [Accessed 17 Dec. 2024]. Project Gallery

Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The secret to disarming plant pathogens revealed Last updated: 22/09/25, 10:14 Published: 27/03/25, 08:00 Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Unravelling the role of bacterial proteins in plant diseases! Disarming plant diseases one protein at a time! Scientists may have found a means to neutralise them, saving farmers $220 billion in yearly crop losses. The impact of plant diseases on global food production Bacteria have long been known to wreak havoc on crops, threatening our food supply and causing substantial economic losses. For over two decades, biologist Sheng-Yang He and his dedicated team have been delving into the mysterious world of bacterial proteins, seeking to unravel their role in plant diseases that plague countless crops worldwide. Finally, a breakthrough has been achieved after years of tireless research and collaboration. In a groundbreaking study published in the esteemed journal Nature, he and his colleagues have uncovered the mechanisms by which these proteins induce disease in plants and devised a method to neutralise their harmful effects. Understanding the mechanism of harmful proteins Their investigation focused on a group of injected proteins called AvrE/DspE, responsible for causing diseases ranging from brown spots in beans to fire blight in fruit trees. Despite their significance, the exact workings of these proteins have long remained elusive. The researchers discovered that these proteins adopt a unique 3D structure resembling a tiny mushroom with a cylindrical stem through cutting-edge advancements in artificial intelligence and innovative experimental techniques. Intriguingly, this structure resembled a straw, leading the team to hypothesise that the proteins create channels in plant cells, enabling the bacteria to extract water from the host during infection. Further investigation into the 3D model of the fire blight protein revealed that its hollow inner core contains many proteins from the AvrE/DspE family. These proteins were found to suppress the plant's immune system and induce dark water-soaked spots on leaves, the telltale signs of infection. However, armed with this newfound knowledge, the researchers sought to develop a strategy to disarm these proteins and halt their destructive effects. They turned to poly(amidoamine) dendrimers (PAMAM), tiny spherical nanoparticles with precise diameters that can be tailored in the lab. By experimenting with different sizes, they identified a nanoparticle that effectively blocked the water channels formed by the bacterial proteins. Application of nanoparticles in blocking water channels In a remarkable series of experiments, the researchers treated frog eggs engineered to produce the water channel protein with these channel-blocking nanoparticles. The results were astounding—the eggs no longer swelled with water and remained unaffected. Similarly, infected Arabidopsis plants treated with the nanoparticles significantly reduced pathogen concentrations, effectively preventing disease development. This breakthrough discovery offers a glimmer of hope in the battle against plant diseases, which cause immense losses in global food production. Plants are responsible for 80% of the world's food supply, and protecting them from pathogens and pests is crucial for ensuring food security. The team's groundbreaking research on plant pathogens and their harmful proteins opens up new possibilities for combating various plant diseases. The implications of their findings extend far beyond a single crop or disease, offering novel approaches to address a wide range of plant diseases. By understanding the mechanism by which bacterial proteins, such as AvrE and DspE, cause diseases in plants, researchers can now explore strategies to disarm these proteins and prevent their harmful effects. The team discovered that these proteins act as water channels, allowing bacteria to invade plant cells and create a saturated environment that promotes their growth. This insight led to the development of channel-blocking nanoparticles, effectively preventing bacteria from infecting plants and causing disease symptoms. Using precise nanoparticles, such as PAMAM dendrimers, to block plant pathogens' water channels represents a promising avenue for crop protection. Figure 1: this figure shows that PAMAM are very branched polymers that are very small, have a low polydispersity index, and have a lot of active amine functional groups. They have multiple modifiable surface functionalities, facilitating the conjugation of ligands for cancer targeting, imaging, and therapy. PAMAM dendrimers also have solubilisation, high drug encapsulation, and passive targeting ability, contributing to their therapeutic success. Cancer researchers are excited about their potential as drug carriers and non-viral gene vectors, with a focus on diagnostic imaging applications. These nanoparticles can be tailored to specific diameters, allowing for targeted disruption of the bacterial proteins' channels. The nanoparticles effectively render the bacteria harmless by interfering with the proteins' ability to create a moist environment within plant cells. This innovative approach has shown success in combating diseases caused by pathogens like Pseudomonas syringae and Erwinia amylovora . Implications for global food production and food security The potential impact of this research on global food production is immense. Plant diseases result in significant crop losses, amounting to over 10% of global food production annually. This translates to a staggering $220 billion economic loss worldwide. Developing strategies to disarm harmful proteins and protect crops from diseases can mitigate these losses and enhance food security. Furthermore, the team's findings highlight the critical role of plant biology research in addressing global challenges. Plants provide 80% of our food, making their health and protection crucial for sustaining our growing population. By understanding how pathogens infect plants and developing innovative solutions, we can safeguard our food supply and reduce the economic impact of crop diseases. Experimental results and a promising outlook The researchers aim to further investigate the interaction between channel-blocking nanoparticles and bacterial proteins. By visualising the structures and mechanisms involved, they hope to refine their designs and develop even more effective strategies for crop protection. Additionally, artificial intelligence, such as the AlphaFold2 programme, has proven instrumental in predicting the 3D structures of complex proteins. Continued advancements in AI technology will undoubtedly contribute to further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases. By unravelling the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, we can protect global food production and enhance food security. The implications of this research extend beyond a single crop or disease, paving the way for novel approaches to combat a wide range of plant diseases and safeguard our agricultural systems. Conclusion The groundbreaking research conducted by biologist Sheng-Yang He and his team offer hope in the fight against plant diseases. By revealing the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, they have paved the way for novel approaches to combat various plant diseases. This enhances food security and protects global food production, reducing economic losses and ensuring a sustainable future. With continued advancements in artificial intelligence and the development of precise nanoparticles, the possibilities for further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases are endless. By safeguarding our agricultural systems, we can secure the health of our crops and, ultimately, the well-being of our growing population. The implications of this research extend far beyond agriculture, offering new avenues for addressing global challenges and paving the way for a brighter and more resilient future. Figure 2: this figure shows a working model for the molecular actions of AvrE-family effectors in plants. AvrE-family effectors are water- and solute-permeable channels that change the osmotic and water potential and make an apoplast that is rich in water and nutrients for bacteria to grow in plant tissues that are infected. They can also engage host proteins to modulate AvrE-family channel properties or optimise pathogenic outcomes. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Digital innovation in rural farming / Nanomedicine / Mechanisms of pathogen evasion / Nanocarriers REFERENCE Kinya Nomura, Felipe Andreazza, Jie Cheng, Ke Dong, Pei Zhou, Sheng Yang He. Bacterial pathogens deliver water- and solute-permeable channels to plant cells. Nature , 2023; DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06531-5 Project Gallery

Not getting enough sleep can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Sleep less…remember less: the hidden link between sleep and memory loss Last updated: 10/07/25, 18:27 Published: 17/04/25, 07:00 Not getting enough sleep can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s People often don’t get enough sleep for a variety of reasons, ranging from intentional choices like work or study demands (because who needs sleep when you’ve got deadlines, right?), to the growing concern with screen time (a.k.a. the “I’ll just watch one more episode” syndrome), and of course, procrastination (where your brain convinces you that 3 a.m. is a great time to suddenly get productive). But it’s not all fun and games—serious issues like insomnia, sleep apnoea, family responsibilities, or even shift work can also interfere with rest. Sleep disorders are increasingly common, with around one in three people in the UK affected, and they’re particularly prevalent among the elderly. However, not getting enough sleep can increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD). How do sleep disorders impact Alzheimer’s disease? Insomnia is characterised by difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, which can lead to prolonged fatigue and memory issues. As shown in Figure 1 , people with insomnia tend to have some similarity in markers as those with Alzheimer’s disease, such as an increased level of Aβ and tau proteins in the brain. This is primarily because a lack of sleep prevents the effective removal of harmful products from the brain – this accumulation increases a person’s risk of AD. A plethora of experimental studies on humans and animals have shown that lack of sleep can lead to increased circulating levels of TNF-α and the gene resulting in more TNF-α secretion. This pro-inflammatory cytokine exacerbates AD pathology because neuroinflammation can lead to dysfunction and cell death, which are key markers of AD. Other pro-inflammatory cytokines, like IL-1, have been found to be relevant in the link between sleep deprivation and AD. Overexpression of IL-1 in the brain leads to abnormal changes in nerve cell structures especially relating to Aβ plaques. This highlights IL-1’s key role in plaque evolution and the synthesis of Amyloid Precursor Protein, which promotes amyloid production that eventually results in AD pathology. What type of sleep can impact one’s risk of Alzheimer’s disease? Studies using more objective measures, like actigraphy (which tracks sleep-wake activity), found that sleep quality (sleep efficiency) is more important than total sleep time. For example, women with less than 70% sleep efficiency were more likely to experience cognitive impairment. Increased wakefulness during the night also moderated the relationship between amyloid deposition (a hallmark of AD) and memory decline. Uncertainties… However, it remains unclear whether poor sleep directly causes AD or if the disease itself leads to sleep disturbances. Some studies suggest a bidirectional relationship. Aging itself leads to poorer sleep quality, including reduced sleep efficiency, less slow-wave sleep (SWS), and more frequent awakenings. Sleep disorders like obstructive sleep apnoea, insomnia, and restless legs syndrome also become more common with age. What are the next steps? The good news is that many sleep disorders, including insomnia, are manageable, and improving sleep quality could be a simple yet powerful way to reduce Alzheimer’s risk. Additionally, early diagnosis and treatment of conditions like sleep apnoea and insomnia may help slow or even prevent neurodegenerative changes. s researchers continue to explore the intricate relationship between sleep and Alzheimer’s, one thing is clear: getting a good night’s sleep isn’t just about feeling refreshed. It is a crucial investment in long-term brain health. Written by Blessing Amo-Konadu Related articles: Overview of Alzheimer's / Hallmarks of Alzheimer's / CRISPR-Cas9 in AD treatment / Memory erasure / Does insomnia run in families? REFERENCES Lucey, B. (2020). It’s complicated: The relationship between sleep and Alzheimer’s disease in humans. Neurobiology of Disease , [online] 144, p.105031. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105031 . NHS (2023). Insomnia . [online] www.nhsinform.scot . Available at: https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/mental-health/insomnia/ . Pelc, C. (2023). Not getting enough deep sleep may increase the risk of developing dementia . [online] Medicalnewstoday.com . Available at: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/not-getting-enough-deep-sleep-may-increase-dementia-risk#Clarifying-the-link-between-sleep-aging-and-dementia-risk [Accessed 22 Dec. 2024]. Sadeghmousavi, S., Eskian, M., Rahmani, F. and Rezaei, N. (2020). The effect of insomnia on development of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Neuroinflammation , 17(1). doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-020-01960-9 . Project Gallery

The current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Health gaps in conflict-affected Kashmir Last updated: 18/09/25, 08:41 Published: 17/07/25, 07:00 The current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people This is article no. 5 in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Syria and Lebanon ’s diverging yet connected struggles . Next article: Health inequalities in Bangladesh . Introduction Welcome to the fifth article of the Global Health Injustices Series. The previous article was a collaborative endeavour focused on the populations in Syria and Lebanon. Now, I will focus on the people living in Kashmir, who are currently experiencing a lot of health and wellbeing challenges, primarily attributed to conflict. For example, on top of the enduring conflict in Kashmir, the COVID-19 pandemic had worsened the mental health of the Kashmiri population, where 1.8 million adults were living with any type of mental distress. Despite these concerns, the Kashmiri people have not had their voices heard as clearly in mainstream discourse compared to other vulnerable populations discussed in previous articles. Kashmir: a rich history to current conflict Kashmir (also known as Jammu & Kashmir) is a region within the Northern Indian subcontinent, bordered mainly by Pakistan and China. Kashmir is a disputed territory between the militaries of India and Pakistan since the Indian subcontinent was divided up by the British Empire in 1947. Even before that, conflicts were driven by issues with local governments and tensions between cultural and ethnic groups within the region. These issues, among others, have contributed to the instability and health challenges encountered by the Kashmiri people. In recent years, tensions and violence have accelerated, particularly in 2024, due to the Indian government wanting to maintain control of the Kashmiri region. This has led to vast protests and friction between civilians and armed forces. In turn, this has weakened ties within the region, particularly between India and neighbouring nations. Another overlooked impact (which I will be discussing further) of this current conflict is on Kashmiri women, who encounter certain challenges, which include loss of family members, displacement and Gender-Based Violence. Considering this background of Kashmir is crucial because it will help with understanding the current geopolitical climate and how it detrimentally affects the health of the Kashmiri people. Geopolitics and health in Kashmir Similar to the populations discussed in previous articles, the Kashmiri people are encountering a lot of mental distress attributed to the ongoing conflict. One study from 2009 found that the prevalence of depression was 55.72%. Meanwhile, another study from 2017 uncovered that approximately 45% of adults experienced mental distress, with specific rates of 41% for depression, 26% for anxiety, and 19% for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This difference presumably came from wider geopolitical factors, as measuring mental health is challenging during conflict. As such, the healthcare system in Kashmir needs urgent improvement to better support mental health. Even though it does better in some areas compared to the national average, the demand for services, especially in conflict-affected areas, is overwhelming. There are not enough mental health professionals, and many healthcare providers lack the training to handle trauma-related issues properly. Investing in training, community mental health initiatives, and integrating mental health services with regular healthcare could help improve the overall mental health of the Kashmiri people. Focusing on mental health just as much as physical health to build resilience in Kashmir is essential. As for the health infrastructure in Kashmir, noted in one review, they have 4433 government health institutions and a doctor-patient ratio of 1:1880, which is lower than the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation of 1:1000, yet higher than the national level of 1:2000. Moreover, the state of Kashmir was shown to have better health indices compared to the national average, including life expectancy, infant mortality rate, and crude birth and death rates. Despite these improvements, challenges persist, such as the inadequate health infrastructure and a shortage of financial resources and technical staff, despite relatively stable trends ( Table 1 ). In one study, the authors noted that among the Schedule tribes in Kashmir, they encounter significant health challenges attributed to illiteracy, poverty, and inadequate healthcare facilities and infrastructure, leading to increased non-communicable diseases (NCDs). There is a high prevalence of poor nutrition and undernutrition, which contributes to the susceptibility of these populations to NCDs (7). Moreover, a lack of access to clean water and sanitation worsens health issues, which increases their risk of infectious diseases. Social taboos and beliefs hinder healthcare service utilisation among the population, which impacts health outcomes and even awareness of NCDs ( Figure 1 ). Focusing on violence exposure in Kashmir, another study among households found that respondents documented high levels of violence, which include: exposure to crossfire (85.7%), round-up raids (82.7%), witnessing torture (66.9%), experiences of rape (13.3%) and forced labor (33.7%). What this study also found was that males noted more violent confrontations and had higher odds of experiencing different forms of maltreatment compared to females. Given that this study was conducted in 2008, these figures are likely to be either higher or lower now, depending on the magnitude of violence and warfare. Nonetheless, the high frequency of violence has led to substantial health issues, specifically mental health problems among the affected Kashmiri population. A severely overlooked impact of conflict in Kashmir is on the women, who encounter specific tragedies, including loss of family members and displacement. Moreover, the use of rape as a weapon in conflict stresses the convergence of gender and political power, particularly in Kashmir. Unfortunately, there have been some researchers who usually depict Kashmiri women as solely victims, which can undermine their autonomy and political involvement. Therefore, addressing the plight of Kashmiri women by allowing them to discuss their experiences openly and actively involving them in key decisions regarding Kashmir can be a vital stepping stone towards supporting their health and well-being. To truly understand all of the various health challenges illustrated above impacting the Kashmiri population, it is vital to cite the various geopolitical factors I discussed in previous articles on Yemen, Sudan and Palestine. The most notable factor is the continuous international weapons/ arms trade, which I firmly believe must be thwarted because of how much damage it has caused, particularly through the sale of bombs and other explosives used to target the most vulnerable populations. However, stopping this trade requires actual political will and legislation, which is unlikely to happen anytime soon because our leaders make a lot of profit from selling weapons. NGOs: their role in supporting Kashmir International non-governmental organisations (INGOs), notably Aakar Patel, chair of board at Amnesty International India, shared this statement in 2024 regarding Kashmir: The Indian authorities are using arbitrary restrictions and punitive actions to create a climate of fear in Jammu and Kashmir. Anyone daring to speak out – whether to criticize the government or to stand up for human rights – faces a clampdown on their rights to freedom of expression and association and cannot move freely within and outside the country. Amnesty International also shared testimonies from a few Kashmiri people: I feel a deep responsibility to be the voice of my people, who are currently voiceless. There are no stories coming out of Kashmir anymore. - Masrat Zahra, an award-winning Kashmiri photojournalist. My freedom of movement is a right enshrined in the Indian Constitution, but I had to really struggle to exercise this right. - Iltija Mufti, daughter and media advisor to ex-chief minister of Jammu & Kashmir. To address the complex health and social issues previously discussed, international organisations and local communities need to come together for solutions. Programs focusing on building mental health support, improving healthcare availability, and creating safe spaces for women and young people can make a difference. The Kashmiri people need to have their voices heard in discussions about their health and wellbeing. Otherwise, their challenges will continue to affect their lives. Conclusion Overall, the health and well-being issues in Kashmir are closely linked to the long-standing conflict and warfare. Although this region has a rich cultural history and shows a lot of resilience, the current conflict has caused unfathomable mental distress and health problems for the Kashmiri people. The rise in mental health issues and the inadequate healthcare infrastructure illustrate that reforms are urgently needed. There is a real shortage of support for mental health, particularly when dealing with the trauma from ongoing violence. Moreover, marginalised groups face tremendous health challenges because of various factors ranging from poverty to a lack of education to limited access to basic needs. Living in violence and conflict not only affects physical health, but also leads to ongoing psychological trauma that is often ignored. Tackling these health inequalities and inequities requires a comprehensive approach incorporating mental health care into the standard healthcare system, improving access to clean water and food, and building communities. Listening to the Kashmiri people and focusing on their health needs is key to achieving peace and better living standards in the region. Therefore, national and international players must recognise these issues and take real action to ensure they receive the support they need and deserve. Only with continued efforts can we expect a healthier future for Kashmir. The following article in the Global Health Injustices series will focus on Bangladesh and the plight of the Rohingya population, which will also be a collaborative endeavour. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Impacts of global warming on dengue fever / Understanding health through different stances / South Asian famine / South Asian mental health REFERENCES Sheikh Shoib, Arafat SMY. Mental health in Kashmir: conflict to COVID-19. Public Health. 2020 Sep 1;187:65–6. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7484691/ Center for Preventive Action. Conflict Between India and Pakistan. Global Conflict Tracker. 2015. Available from: https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-between-india-and-pakistan Zeeshan S, Hanife Aliefendioğlu. Kashmiri women in conflict: a feminist perspective. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 2024 Feb 12;11(1). Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-02742-x Amin S, Khan A. Life in conflict: Characteristics of Depression in Kashmir. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2009 Jul;3(2):213. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3068807/ Housen T, Lenglet A, Ariti C, Shah S, Shah H, Ara S, et al. Prevalence of anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in the Kashmir Valley. BMJ Global Health. 2017 Oct;2(4):e000419. Available from: https://gh.bmj.com/content/2/4/e000419 Mir A, Bhat S. Health Status and Access to Health Care Services in Jammu and Kashmir State. Asian Review of Social Sciences [Internet]. 2018;7(3):52–7. Available from: https://www.trp.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ARSS-Vol.7-No.3-October-December-2018-pp.52-57.pdf Habib A, Iqbal A, Rafiq H, Shah A, Amin S, Suheena, et al. Trends in the Magnitude of NCDs among Schedule Tribe Population of Kashmir with Special Reference to Health and Nutritional [Internet]. Journal of Community Medicine & Public Health. Gavin Publishers; 2023 [cited 2025 May 5]. Available from: https://www.gavinpublishers.com/article/view/trends-in-the-magnitude-of-ncds-among-schedule-tribe-population-of-kashmir-with-special-reference-to-health-and-nutritional Jong K de, Ford N, van, Kamalini Lokuge, Fromm S, Galen R van, et al. Conflict in the Indian Kashmir Valley I: exposure to violence. Conflict and Health [Internet]. 2008 Oct 14 [cited 2025 May 5];2(1). Available from: https://conflictandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1752-1505-2-10 Authorities must end repression of dissent in Jammu and Kashmir [Internet]. Amnesty International. 2024 [cited 2025 Jun 11]. Available from: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/09/india-authorities-must-end-repression-of-dissent-in-jammu-and-kashmir/ Project Gallery

How colonialism, interventionism and health are interwoven Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link How colonialism and geopolitics shape health injustices: a deep, critical reflection Last updated: 23/10/25, 10:16 Published: 16/10/25, 07:00 How colonialism, interventionism and health are interwoven This is the final article (article no. 7) in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Addressing the health landscape in Bangladesh's Rohingya community Introduction Welcome to the reflective article of the Global Health Injustices Series. Before I begin, I want to thank Jana Antar again for her contributions to the Lebanon and Syria article, and Dr Nasif Mahmood for his contributions to the Rohingya people in Bangladesh article. Writing and researching about these different countries was an incredible experience. Although I initially planned for this series to go beyond ten articles, focusing on the most enduring and neglected injustices was vital, particularly as the world is becoming more dynamic with geopolitical power shifts. With this in mind, I want to emphasise that each vulnerable population faces unique challenges, but they have challenges shared with others that are not mentioned in this series. I wanted to address these injustices because they are urgent and demonstrate how interconnected global struggles truly are. Through writing this last article, I deepened my understanding of how colonialism, interventionism, and health are interwoven. How the past impacts present reality (colonialism) The injustices we see in news headlines, social media, or the ones we directly experience should not be understood as isolated examples ( Table 1 ). Instead, they stem from European colonialism and later foreign interventionism, shaping how regional governments were created. The ongoing Gaza genocide and expanding illegal settlements pushing out Palestinians in the West Bank are due to Israel’s brutal military occupation and apartheid for 70+ years, and its acts, including the Nakba. Sudan had external rulers (notably Egypt and the British Empire) contributing to its civil wars through political destabilisation, among other factors. This similarly happened in Yemen, though it is also important to note that foreign intervention from the United States (US) and Saudi Arabian governments contributed to the country's existing crises. Lebanon and Syria were divided up and governed by Britain and France after the Ottoman Empire collapsed shortly after World War 1, a significant event leading to political destabilisation and ongoing catastrophes, which also happened to Palestine. In Kashmir, the people’s plight erupted through the British Empire partitioning the Indian subcontinent into multiple nations in 1947 (India, West Pakistan becoming Pakistan and East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh), with Kashmir being a disputed territory between Pakistan and India. As for the Rohingya population and Bangladesh, civil wars during the 20th century and ensuing persecution by the government of Myanmar have contributed to their crises. Therefore, it is clear that all of these events I summarised showcase how their root causes lead to the substantial effects of the current daily injustices. Moreover, what connects these substantial injustices and many others worldwide traces back to the consequences of European colonialism; these powers dispossessed indigenous peoples of their lands and resources through violence, subsequently broken treaties, or legal frameworks that did not identify Indigenous land tenure systems. While they did disrupt indigenous governments, some recent injustices prevail because post-colonial elites embraced or exacerbated these exploitative systems. This severed deep cultural, spiritual, and economic ties that indigenous communities had with their land. For example, Canada’s colonial legacy, notably its Indian Residential Schools, involved forcibly removing children from their families, leading to negative outcomes for the Indigenous communities. Moreover, it is vital to acknowledge the impact of settler colonialism on Indigenous communities globally across South America, Africa, Asia and the Aboriginal people of Australia and New Zealand. If we do not critically think and learn about these past events, how will we improve our present reality and build a future for everyone? Table 1: Summary of the historical and modern perpetrators of injustices affecting the countries/communities explored in the Global Health Injustices Series Country/ community explored in the Global Health Injustices Series Main perpetrator(s) of their injustices Palestine Israel + foreign military aid from the US, UK + other countries Sudan RSF + other local political factions with foreign military aid from the UAE + other countries Yemen Houthis + other local political factions + foreign Interventionism from Saudi Arabia + US + foreign military aid Lebanon Local political factions + US, UK + other countries Syria Local political factions + US, UK + other countries Kashmir Indian + Pakistani militaries + foreign military aid Rohinyga Government of Myanmar + foreign military aid Bangladesh UK via the partition of Subcontinental India (1947), contributing to later injustices Current major health problems Health is essential in global injustices because it is a mirror and a driver of the disparities among various populations. Accessing quality healthcare is usually affected by factors, such as race and ethnicity, which accentuate deep-rooted inequalities. For example, communities with lower incomes encounter challenges, ranging from a lack of healthcare infrastructure to environmental hazards, leading to worse health outcomes. Therefore, tackling them is essential for achieving justice, as improved health outcomes can empower marginalised groups. Aside from warfare being a major determinant of health and injustice, I want to highlight migration as a significant co-occurring determinant. Although research is expanding, the bidirectional relationship between migration and health remains inadequately incorporated into practice and laws. Migration is a complicated and heterogeneous multiphase process ( Figure 1 ). Meanwhile, collecting migration data remains difficult due to polarised political views, unwillingness to finance research on discriminatory laws, varying migration definitions, and limited comparable global data. Unfortunately, political rhetoric and media depictions form incorrect assumptions, stereotypes, and negative views of migrants and refugees, leading to a weakened understanding of the severity and positive aspects of migration. Also, this manifests into hatred and scapegoating of migrants and refugees through their “perceived” impact on countries like employment and healthcare. In reality, accessing employment and healthcare is very difficult for them, leading to negative health outcomes. Thinking more broadly, health behaviours are not solely individual choices, but are deeply rooted in and affected by social, cultural, and political environments. For example, when looking at politics and health through a framework ( Figure 2 ), it is clear how politics is influential through labour markets and welfare states, leading to socioeconomic, income and wealth inequalities and poor health. One systematic review found that a generous welfare state is typically associated with positive population health outcomes, with the Nordic model as an example. This suggests that political leaders are vital in affecting agendas, encouraging intersectoral partnerships, and showing political will to promote health equity. Another review supported the benefits of a generous welfare state through maternal and child health outcomes. Therefore, health and politics are intertwined, as addressed in previous articles through specific contexts. Now I will discuss it more broadly. Current major geopolitical problems Geopolitical dynamics are crucial to shaping the lives of vulnerable populations by influencing their access to security, resources, and fundamental human rights; this is impacted by governments, policies, geographies, and the relationships and interests between countries. In countries or regions plagued by continuous conflict or authoritarian governments, these communities often find themselves at greater risk of challenges like displacement, violence, and systemic discrimination. Moreover, the complicated relationship between global and local power systems results in specific communities being neglected, as more powerful geopolitical interests repeatedly overshadow their needs. To truly support these communities, it is vital to consider how foreign interventionism from countries like the US and the UK impacts the Palestinians, Sudanese, Lebanese, Syrian, Yemeni, Kashmiri, and the Rohingya populations. Foreign interventionism, which typically occurs through militarism, is characterised as the international and social relations of training for and executing organised political violence; this is a pervasive feature of geopolitics, rising into civilian domains by shaping countries and regions. Then, humanitarianism is typically seen as an unbiased moral discourse centred on universal humanity and aid. Yet, it is historically linked to militarism, particularly in Western countries and has deepened in recent decades. Humanitarian standards, like International Humanitarian Law (IHL), are supposed to limit wars’ consequences, but IHL may implicitly tolerate particular levels of ‘collateral damage’ as allowable. IHL is embedded in a hierarchy that determines who can be saved and who cannot, possibly causing inequalities and unstable power relations tied to imperial dynamics. Hence, I see Western humanitarianism as deeply entangled with militarism because of how it can serve to justify and expand political violence across diverse countries and regions, as seen in modern news headlines. More importantly, this dynamic drives a vicious cycle of violence, where armed conflicts cause vulnerability by destroying infrastructure, destabilising nations and other negative consequences, like climate change and rising extremism, leading to civil wars and genocide. Moving forward To truly move forward, adopting a multifaceted approach (e.g. decolonising global health) to addressing all the injustices and health disparities is vital; this can work, but I think that should involve giving all the most vulnerable communities their autonomy, liberation and fundamental human rights. There is the notion of peace plans coming from Western governments like the US, yet that cannot start without putting those directly experiencing war, genocide, displacement, ethnic cleansing and other atrocities as the central voice in those conversations. Moreover, we should highlight those most accountable for making amends. For example, they should allow a right to return and a payment of extensive reparations to the displaced Palestinians, Sudanese, Lebanese, Syrian, Yemeni, Kashmiri, and the Rohingya populations to their homelands, among numerous others. The big question is whether these suggestions will become tangible realities. Although reparations and the right to return may seem distant from contemporary political realities, they are moral imperatives for real justice to occur. Continuously raising awareness and rallying support for affected communities so they can tackle their needs and challenges is important. There is also advocacy, which is vital in showcasing the issues they encounter, which can pave the way for significant policy changes. Moreover, the participation of local and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), like Amnesty International, is crucial for enforcing ongoing solutions, as they better grasp the vulnerable communities’ needs. When these efforts are done collaboratively, fostering a more supportive environment for those needing it most is vital. Unfortunately, NGOs cannot replace genuine international political will because their impact will always be limited without structural change. Importantly, recognising how interconnected everyone is as a global community is crucial. Engaging in different cultures and experiences should foster empathy and build a collective strength to face challenges, notably climate change and warfare driven by the weapons industry. Uniting and sharing knowledge can encourage real change and all countries actually following international law, which requires powerful countries to be held responsible in ways that have been avoided so far; this should involve acknowledging that the vulnerable communities have a right to resist and defend themselves against their oppressors. Conclusion The global health injustices seen today have historical roots in European colonialism, which has stripped indigenous global communities of their homelands and disrupted their cultural connections. Furthermore, they are influenced by many factors. Moreover, health behaviours are influenced by the broader social, cultural, and political landscapes. Geopolitical dynamics impact vulnerable populations by undermining their security, access to resources, and fundamental human rights; foreign interventionism via militarism makes them worse. Humanitarianism with militarism can reinforce cycles of violence by legitimising unequal power dynamics despite its good intentions. To effectively tackle the global health injustices, uplifting vulnerable communities by prioritising their human rights is vital. The perpetrators should pay reparations and grant the right of return to the most impacted. As individuals, we must raise awareness and push for policy changes. Local and international organisations are pivotal in understanding and addressing community needs. With everything said, I enjoyed writing this series because it showed me how connected all these injustices are and how we can act, listen and reflect together. Ultimately, we must focus on all the countries and communities highlighted in this series, as well as others currently facing injustices like the Uyghurs in China and Afghanistan. We must open our eyes, hearts, souls, and minds to nurture global connections and share knowledge for impactful change. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: How does physical health affect mental health? / Beyond medicine: health through different stances / Regulation and policy of stem cell research REFERENCES Banat BYI, Entrena-Durán F, Dayyeh J. Palestinian Refugee Youth: Reproduction of Collective Memory of the Nakba. Asian Social Science. 2018 Nov 29;14(12):147.2. Amiad Haran Diman, Miodownik D. Bloody Pasts and Current Politics: The Political Legacies of Violent Resettlement. Comparative Political Studies. 2023 Aug 13;57(9). Abubakar M, Yahaya TB. Secession and border disputes in Africa: The case of Sudan and South Sudan border. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations. 2021 Oct 31;15(4):131–8. Tamer Abd Elkreem, Jaspars S. Sudan’s catastrophe: the role of changing dynamics of food and power in the Gezira agricultural scheme. Disasters [Internet]. 2024 Oct 30 [cited 2025 Sep 18];49(1). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11603519/ eClinicalMedicine. Under the shade of world events: a never-ending crisis in Yemen. EClinicalMedicine [Internet]. 2023 Oct 1 [cited 2025 Sep 18];64:102302–2. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/eclinm/article/PIIS2589-5370(23)00479-0/fulltext Bordón J, Eyad Alrefai. Saudi Arabia’s Foreign aid: the Singularity of Yemen as a Case Study. Third World Quarterly. 2023 Jul 14;45:1–18. Osman O. Western Domination, Destructive Governance, and the Perpetual Development Crisis in the Arab Region. World review of political economy. 2024 Apr 15;15(1). Huber D, Woertz E. Resilience, conflict and areas of limited statehood in Iraq, Lebanon and Syria. Democratization. 2021 Jun 25;28(7):1–19. Gupta H. 1947 Partition of India and its lessons. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care [Internet]. 2024 Jul 26 [cited 2025 Sep 18];13(8):3471–2. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11368293/ Jong K de, van, Ford N, Kamalini Lokuge, Fromm S, Galen R van, et al. 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Tackling stereotypes and equal access Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why representation in STEM matters Last updated: 03/04/25, 10:38 Published: 13/03/25, 08:00 Tackling stereotypes and equal access In collaboration with Stemmettes for International Women's Month Representation in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) and Science, Technology, Engineering, Art and Mathematics (STEAM), is crucial for everyone. Historically, STEM fields have been dominated by certain demographics that don’t show the true picture of our world. Maybe you grew up seeing no (or very few) women, people of colour, or other marginalised groups mentioned in your science curriculum. This needs to change because your voice, experiences and talents should be celebrated in any career you choose. Below, we’ll list some of the top reasons why representation is so important. Equal access Why does representation matter? Because it promotes equal access! Whether in an educational or career setting, seeing someone who looks like you do something you never thought possible can be life-changing. After all, you can’t be what you can’t see . Showing up in your role and sharing what you do or your STEM/STEAM interests show other people that these fields are accessible to everyone. Also, finding someone in a field you are (or would like to) get into is a great way to find a mentor, build a network, and boost your knowledge. Feeling excluded or discouraged is bound to happen at some point in your career, but anyone can succeed, no matter their background. Innovation When STEM fields are equally represented, better (and more innovative) ideas come to the table. Everything you’ve experienced can be useful in developing solutions to STEM and STEAM problems, no matter your level of education or upbringing. A lot of STEM doesn’t rely so much on your qualifications, but instead on your problem-solving, creativity, and innovation skills. For example, if you’re part of a culture that nobody else in your team has experienced, or you’ve experienced a disability and made adaptations for yourself, you bring a unique set of ideas to the table that can help solve many different problems. Inclusion There are many examples of when certain demographics haven’t been included in STEM decision-making processes. For example, many face recognition apps have failed to recognise the faces of people of colour, and period trackers have been made with misinformation about cycle lengths. If more diversity were seen throughout the process of creating a STEM product or service, we would see a lot fewer issues and a lot better products! Now, more than ever, your voice is important in STEM because science and technology are shaping the future at a fast rate. With the boom in artificial intelligence (AI) technology and its impact on almost every industry, we can’t afford to have models being trained from an unrepresentative data set. Look at people like Katherine Johnson, who despite facing setbacks as an African American at the time, was a pivotal part of sending astronauts aboard Apollo 11 into space. Or, more recently, Dr Ronx, who is paving the way as a trans-non-binary emergency medicine doctor. Tackling stereotypes Showing up in STEM & STEAM fields is a great way to tackle stereotypes. So many underrepresented groups are usually stereotyped into different career paths that are based on old, outdated notions about what certain people should do. By showing up and talking about what you love, you show that you’re not less capable than anyone else. Shout about your achievements, no matter how big or small, no matter where you are on your career journey so that we can encourage a new idea of what STEM looks like. Conclusion If this article hasn’t already given you the confidence to explore STEM and STEAM fields and all they have to offer, there are so many other reasons why you’re important to these fields and capable of achieving your dreams. Representation from you and others helps us create a more equitable, innovative, and inclusive future. It matters because the progress of science and society depends on the contributions of all, not a select few. Written by Angel Pooler -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks Stemmettes for this pertinent piece on the importance of representation in STEM. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! Check out their website , and Zine / Futures youth board (The Stemette Futures Youth Board is made up of volunteers aged 15-25 from the UK and Ireland who will ensure the voices of girls, young women and non-binary young people are heard. They will work alongside the Stemette Futures charity board to guide and lead the mission to inspire more girls, young women and non-binary young people in to STEAM). -- Related articles: Sisterhood in STEM / Women leading in biomedical engineering / African-American women in cancer research Project Gallery

Using toxins for pain management Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Anthrax Toxin Last updated: 18/09/25, 08:45 Published: 03/04/25, 07:00 Using toxins for pain management Introduction Pain is a response and signal to organisms that there is damage to the body. This could be due to an infection, tissue damage or organ damage. Different types of pain medication have been manufactured in the last decade. This includes the artificial manufacture of opioids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, using pathogens like bacteria and other substances. Bacteria have been investigated for managing and treating pain, with varying levels of effectiveness. Research by Yang et al. (2021) has shown that bacteria can interact with organisms and communicate with the nervous system, leading to analgesia (pain relief). Bacteria can also activate nociceptors, receptors that respond to pain, to alert the organism of damage. These nociceptors can also detect bacterial processes that release pain-producing toxins. Yang et al.’s research specifically looked at the bacterial toxin Bacillus anthracis ( Figure 1 ). It is a significant factor in the spread of anthrax, an infectious disease, and their experiments showed that it can lead to analgesia, as Bacillus anthracis and nociceptors can work together to suppress pain. The experiment The experiment by Yang et al. looked at different methods to target and suppress specific nociceptive neurons to decrease pain in mammals using bacteria. The study focused on the interactions between nociceptors and Bacillus anthracis . The researchers found that Bacillus anthracis toxin was made up of three substances: protective antigen (PA), lethal factor (LF), and edema factor (EF), as shown in Figure 2 . They created edema toxin (ET) using PA and EF, and administered the ET to mice via the intrathecal route (through the spinal canal, also shown in Figure 2 ). The scientists used different doses of PA, LF and EF. The intrathecal route was used to limit the diffusion of ET to the spinal cord and sensory neurons, preventing ET from moving into other organs. The researchers then analysed the mouse neurons to compare the sequences before and after the experiments and determine the effectiveness of the treatments. The results indicated high levels of ANTXR2 receptors (high-affinity receptors for anthrax toxins), meaning the response to pain was faster. The results The researchers examined the mechanical sensitivity and thermal latency. Mechanical sensitivity is the ability to differentiate between and respond to mechanical stimuli, and thermal latency is the ability to differentiate between and respond to heat stimuli. In mammals, signs of pain can be quantified using these indicators. The higher the threshold, the lower the pain. The threshold levels of these factors were compared up to 24 hours after the injections of the PA, PA + LF and PA + EF, as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 : Line graphs showing the results of the intrathecal injections. (A) Line graph of mechanical sensitivity thresholds after intrathecal administration. (B) Line graph of thermal sensitivity thresholds after intrathecal administration. (C) Line graph of mechanical sensitivity thresholds on the day and 24 hours after the second injection. After administration of the injections via the intrathecal route, thresholds of mechanical sensitivity, Figure 3A , were increased significantly for several hours. The injection of PA + EF resulted in the highest threshold, remaining at 1.0 g 6 hours post-injection, compared to the injections of PA and PA + LF, which both had a threshold of below 0.5 g 6 hours post-injection. The thresholds of thermal latency, shown in Figure 3B , also increased significantly for several hours. Again, the injection of PA + EF resulted in the highest latency, remaining for more than 20 seconds 6 hours post-injection, compared to the injections of PA and PA + LF, which both had a latency of below 20 seconds 6 hours post-injection. The results from Figures 3A and 3B suggest that the injections of PA + EF were the most effective in increasing the thresholds of both mechanical sensitivity and thermal latency. A second injection of ET was administered, and thresholds of mechanical sensitivity were again elevated, as shown in Figure 3C . After the second injection, the effects of pain relief were more potent. In the graph, at D2, the threshold of mechanical sensitivity 6 hours after the second injection was above 1.5 g for mice given ET, compared to below 1.0 g 6 hours after the first injection for mice given ET. This could be due to the upregulation of the ANTXR2 receptors induced by ET. Upregulation is when hormone secretion is suppressed, and the number of receptors (in this case, ANTXR2) increases, causing a faster response to the stimulus (in this case, pain). This suggests that ET can result in pain receptors being affected, leading to a faster analgesic response. The researchers concluded that this experiment did result in analgesia in mice as ET targeted specific nociceptors. The results from this experiment are significant because they indicate that pain behaviour can be blocked by intrathecal administration of a harmful bacterial toxin such as Bacillus anthracis . Conclusion Yang et al. (2021) found that the injection of the ET via the intrathecal route results in blocked pain behaviour in mice. The experiment is significant as it has shown that a harmful toxin can have positive effects. However, it is difficult to know if the effects will be replicated in humans as human trials have not yet been carried out. In addition, the sample size was very small, with a maximum of eight mice observed after each injection. This could result in high variability (the data points would be more spread out from the mean and, therefore, less consistent) and inconclusive results. Nevertheless, with further study, experimentation, and refinement of the ET via the intrathecal method, new therapies for people with pain, especially chronic pain, could be created in the future. Different dosages of the ET could be experimented upon to see whether a higher dosage has better results, with a bigger sample size, and human trials. The results from Yang et al. (2021) showed that intrathecal ET injections are promising, and if successful in humans, this method would ease the burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Ibuprofen / The Pain Gate Theory Project Gallery

Observations suggest that aspects of their design were purposeful for other reasons Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The astronomical symbolism of the Giza Pyramids Last updated: 09/10/25, 10:03 Published: 06/03/25, 08:00 Observations suggest that aspects of their design were purposeful for other reasons This is Article 2 in a series about astro-archaeology. Next article: The celestial blueprint of time: Stonehenge, UK . Previous article: Cities designed to track the heavens: Chaco Canyon, New Mexico The Giza Pyramids of the ancient Egyptian civilisation may be most well known as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, but they also harbour astronomical secrets. The three Great Pyramids (Khafre, Khufu, and Menkaure) are incredible feats of engineering, with heights measuring 146.6 meters, 143.5 meters, and 64.5 meters, respectively. No documentation has been found explaining the planning or construction processes behind the creation of these magnificent structures, yet observations suggest that aspects of their design were purposeful for reasons other than simply erecting the pyramid. Example 1: The square bases of the pyramids are very carefully oriented to the cardinal points with the Khufu Pyramid aligning within 4 arc minutes of the north-south line. For context, if you were to hold your index finger up, it would cover a portion of the sky that measures about 10 degrees across. 1 arc minute is a unit of measurement equal to 1/60 of 1 degree, which means that the orientation of the Khufu Pyramid only deviates from the north-south line by less than 4/60-degree error. Today, we would calculate this using a GPS or other technical equipment, but what did the ancient Egyptians use? Well, astronomy! While the exact method of calculation is not known, researchers believe that the ancient engineers aligned the pyramids to the constellation Orion and the star Sirius as they are circumpolar stars, never rising nor setting, and are therefore visible every night as a useful guide. This may also have religious implications relating to immortality, perhaps adding to the desire to align the Pharoah’s tombs with such a symbolic constellation. Example 2: The south-eastern corners of the three Giza Pyramids all point toward the nearby great solar temple of Heliopolis, which was a major religious centre of the sun god Atum-Ra. According to the Pyramid Texts, Heliopolis was the location that the god-creator Atum emerged from chaos and begun creation. These texts suggest that the ancient Egyptians believed that the Pharaohs join Atum-Ra in the afterlife, and they together cross the sky in Atum-Ra’s sun boat as part of the rebirth process. Upon investigation, the three pyramids seem to be aligned with various solar events as well as the city of the sun god: the setting sun is aligned with the northern side of the Khafre pyramid and the southern side of the Khufu pyramid during the equinoxes the causeways point to the setting sun behind the pyramid twice per year, which are distanced the same number of days from the winter/summer solstices each of the two causeways point towards sunset in two separate locations that are halfway between the equinoxes and solstices, respectively (not according to the calendar year, but according to the astronomical year) on the summer solstice, the sun sets directly between the two great pyramids when viewing from the Sphinx area of the pyramidal complex Example 3: the position of three Great Pyramids with respect to each other mimics the position of the stars in the constellation Orion’s belt with respect to each other. Astronomical calculations show that the orientation and position of the Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure pyramids align together in exactly the same way that the Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka stars align in Orion’s belt. Of course, there is a small percentage of error, but it is because of naked eye observations instead of mathematical miscalculations. While there are still many secrets hidden in and around the Great Pyramids of ancient Egypt, they can continue to provide insight into how ancient peoples interconnected architecture, astronomy/mathematics, and religious beliefs within their societies. Written by Amber Elinsky REFERENCES Magli, G. (2009). Archaeoastronomy at Giza: the ancient Egyptians’ mathematical astronomy in action. In: Emmer, M., Quarteroni, A. (eds) Mathknow. MS&A, vol 3. Springer, Milano. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-88-470-1122-9_10 . Orofino, V. and P. Bernardini. Archaeoastronomical Study of the Main Pyramids of Giza, Egypt: Possible Correlations with the Stars?. Archaeological Discovery: 1 (2016), vol 3. https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=61389 . Verner, Miroslav, 'Heliopolis: The City of the Sun', in Anna Bryson-Gustová (ed.), Temple of the World: Sanctuaries, Cults, and Mysteries of Ancient Egypt (Cairo, 2013; online edn, Cairo Scholarship Online, 18 Sept. 2014), https://doi.org/10.5743/cairo/9789774165634.003.0002 . https://pyramidtextsonline.com/translation.html Project Gallery !