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Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epilepsy 101: what are the different types of epilepsy seizures? Last updated: 29/04/25, 16:09 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness After previously covering a very generic overview into epilepsy – what it is, its different types, methods of diagnosis and treatment, it would be a good idea to really delve deeper into the different types of seizures. Are they just convulsions, shaking and losing consciousness? Or is there more to it? Read more to find out! But before we begin, it is important to cover some key terms and prefixes, to help us with understanding what the different types of seizures are: Myo-: muscle Clonic: repeated jerking Tonic: muscle stiffness Atonic: muscles become limp Motor: movement From our previous article , we know that the two main types of epilepsy are generalised and focal epilepsy. Each type of epilepsy has different types of seizures associated with it. Generalised epilepsy – it consists of 2 main types of seizures (motor and non-motor seizures): 1) Generalised Motor Seizures: Involves changes in muscle activity, where they either move abnormally, or don’t move at all. This includes: Myoclonic seizures: sudden body jerks (especially the hands or the legs) as if someone had been jolted with electricity. Tonic - Clonic (Grand mal) seizures: This seizure has 2 main phases – a tonic and clonic stage:- Initial tonic (stiffness) phase is followed by a clonic (repeated, uncontrolled jerking of the limbs) phase. During the 'tonic' phase, the person may become unconscious and fall to the floor. In the 'clonic' phase, the person might struggle to breathe or uncontrollably bite their tongue. This is probably the ‘typical’ seizure everyone thinks of when they hear about epilepsy! Atonic seizures: The muscles become limp, and the person might even collapse. 2) Generalised non-motor seizures: They are usually also referred to as 'absence seizures', and they don’t include any changes in muscle activity. Instead, the person might stare into space, and might have a pause in activity, or a repetition in movements, such as lip-smacking for around 15 seconds or less. The individual may not remember what happened during the seizure; however their normal state of alertness is regained immediately after. People might easily confuse this type of seizure with daydreaming! Focal epilepsy- This is split into 4 main types based on whether the person is aware of their seizure, and if there are any changes in muscle activity involved: 1) Focal awareness seizures: Patient is fully aware of what is happening during a seizure, even if they are unable to move or respond. Some people might experience an "aura" as a warning before this seizure. This could feel like a strange sensation, fear, euphoria, a sense of déjà vu, feeling that something bad is about to happen, visual changes or even tingling or stiffness in their body. 2) Focal impaired awareness seizures: The person isn’t aware of their seizure, nor can they remember having it, and can’t respond to anyone during the seizure. The seizure can include movements such as moving their hands and legs or making random noises. 3) Focal Motor Seizures: involves random muscle activity, such as twitching, stiffness, limpness, or other movements such as rubbing hands, lip-smacking and walking around. 4) Focal Non-motor Seizures: no muscle movements or stiffness (as this is a non-motor seizure), but there is a change in a patient’s feelings and thoughts, causing strange feelings, a racing heart, and waves of heat or cold. Now that we’ve covered the key seizures, what triggers epilepsy seizures, causing those lights in the city (which in this case, is our brain) to start flickering or shut completely? There are many different causes, and they vary from one person to another. They could include: Stress Lack of sleep Drinking alcohol Consuming illegal drugs Not taking your anti-seizure medication (ASMs) Some types of medication Menstrual Cycle and hormonal changes Flashing lights (for individuals with photosensitive epilepsy) Photosensitive epilepsy is epilepsy that is triggered by flashing of lights, causing seizures such as myoclonic seizures. It is interesting to see how many people hold the misconception that seizures are mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness, when in fact there’s a huge variety of seizure! It is important that we know what different seizures look like, so we could help these individuals appropriately. Don’t be afraid to read further about epilepsy and seizures, and how to help people out there! Written by Hanin Salem Related articles: Epilepsy 101 (overview) / Traumatic brain injuries REFERENCES Dhanyamraju, S. (2019). What is a Seizure? - Lone Star Neurology . [online] Lone Star Neurology. Available at: https://lonestarneurology.net/seizures/seizures/ . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Ditki medical & biological sciences. (n.d.). Neurological System Glossary: Tonic-Clonic Seizure . [online] Available at: https://ditki.com/course/neurological-system/glossary/eeg-findings/tonic-clonic-seizure . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Epilepsy action (2022). Focal seizures | Epilepsy Action . [online] www.epilepsy.org.uk . Available at: https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/seizures/focal-seizures [Accessed 18 Dec. 2024]. John Hopkins Medicine (n.d.). Generalized Seizures . [online] Available at: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/epilepsy/generalized-seizures#:~:text=Generalized%20seizures%20include%20absence%2C%20atonic [Accessed 17 Dec.2024]. NHS (2020). Symptoms - Epilepsy . [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/epilepsy/symptoms/ [Accessed 17 Dec. 2024]. Project Gallery

Broadening access for (black) women in STEM Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Power of sisterhood in STEM Last updated: 28/03/25, 11:10 Published: 28/03/25, 08:00 Broadening access for (black) women in STEM In collaboration with SiSTEM for International Women's Month Entering a fluid dynamics lecture. Looking under a microscope confined to the four walls of a lab. Walking onto a construction site or a board meeting. As a woman in these spaces, particularly as a woman of colour it is easy to believe you are the ONLY one. That’s what we thought, two sisters of black heritage starting out in the biomedical and the engineering field respectively. The higher we went in education the less people that looked like us. Being 1 of 10 women in a cohort of 200 was a familiar sight. Being less than 2% of the engineering workforce as a woman, you can start to feel like science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) is not for you. But the reality is there are women in STEM doing incredible work. STEM is not a man’s industry. As women, we deserve our space on the STEM table. Through our struggles and isolating experiences, we decided to create SiSTEM, a community for all these wonderful women. Real life sisterhood We are often asked how we find working with your sister. Truth is, we wouldn’t be each other’s first choice for a business partner! We never thought we would start an organisation together, growing up as most siblings we have always wanted to do our own thing. Science and engineering was always seen as us doing separate things. Moreover we have completely different personalities. But we are two sisters with one dream; we don’t want another girl to leave the STEM field because she doesn’t believe she belongs there. We don’t want another girl to disqualify herself from her STEM career or degree because she has been told she doesn’t have the look for STEM or grades to do well. We have one passion and that’s to change the narrative of women in STEM, particularly black women and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. There is power in numbers Community and having a support system are important. We wouldn’t have completed our STEM degrees or broken into our careers without our personal sisterly support. We were always a phone call away for each other, ready to be a listening ear and a cheerleader. That same sisterly support is what we offer to other women and girls through our initiative. There’s power in sisterhood, standing on the shoulders of great women. Women face unique challenges particularly in the STEM industry, discrimination, feeling less valued, difficulty with pay and promotion but by building a culture of support we empower women to thrive despite the barriers. It’s beautiful to belong to a circle of women as we are stronger together. By belonging to a community it cultivates a feeling of belonging. You also learn from one another, sparking interesting conversations, building important connections. We learn from our community everyday: the conversations we are able to have inspire us and broaden our knowledge. Throwing the rope to the next generation From its inception, SiSTEM’s goal was to support women and girls throughout their STEM journey. The gender gap issue in STEM starts very early on, very often not when we choose our degree courses but as early as primary school. That’s why we empower young girls as young as five years old. Every girl, every woman deserves to be part of a community. Every stage of the journey has its unique challenges which belonging to community can help navigate. I’m sure you’ve heard the saying ‘empowered women empower women’ - now we feel empowered to empower other girls and women. We originally felt like we were not the people to create this community. Imposter syndrome told us we weren’t qualified enough, that we didn’t have a story to tell worth listening to. Reflecting on our own journeys, it’s women like our teachers, our mother, our friends who have been key in our success. Our mum telling us to ‘aim high and be the best’, a female science teacher telling us ‘you can be whatever you want to be’, a friend's comment on our graduation post saying how proud they are. And now a community of women who we can lean on for support, receive advice and inspire us every day. Today, we meet women at schools, events, universities and workplaces. A common theme in some of these women and girls we meet is a lack of confidence. Our biggest joy is when we are able to put a smile on a young girl’s face who feels giving up.Women need reminding how amazing they are so we continue to do amazing things, find a cure for cancer, make an innovative product to solve the world’s biggest problems or to design a beautiful building which would will be seen by generations to come. We shouldn’t be afraid to share our personal stories of how we got to where we are. when others hear they are empowered. This is what we use our platform to do. We are able to pass on the mic to other woman to share their untold stories. By putting a light on various women particularly black women in STEM we are giving others positive roles models to look to where they able to believe they do can do it. An empowered woman is a force of nature. She shines. She encourages. She breaks barriers and has the confidence to speak up in a place where she was told to be silent. By forming our community even though we may still find that we are the only women in the room, we have many women standing behind us and many more coming. Conclusion Retention of women in STEM is as equally as important as getting women into STEM. There is a leaky pipeline particularly between university level and STEM leadership positions and also many young girls already have a negative perception about certain STEM careers. That’s why we created an initiative to encourage more girls to get into STEM through innovative workshops and outreach programs and to create a community for women currently in the field. By doing so we aim to open the bottle top at one end and close any holes at the other end. Women supporting women in a powerful thing and there is space for all women in stem, no matter your background, academic records or skin colour. Together we make STEM colourful…preferably pink! -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks SiSTEM for this important piece on female representation in STEM. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! For more information, check them out on Instagram and LinkedIn . -- Related articles: Representation in STEM / Women leading in biomedical engineering / African-American women in cancer research Project Gallery

Immunosenescence and related therapies Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Ageing and its association with immune decline Last updated: 24/02/25, 11:28 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Immunosenescence and related therapies Introduction Ageing is a profoundly complex and integral part of human life. As pharmaceutical developments have occurred, introducing new medicines and therapies such as biologics and antibiotics within the last 100 years, research has begun to look at malignancy at a more macro scale. To be clear, while it has become easier to combat infectious diseases in recent times, the combating of diseases tied to our genetic composition is far more complicated, whether it be autoimmune diseases or onset conditions such as cases of dementia. Ageing is one such case of a process that is hard to combat because the mechanisms that cause it are diverse and currently not fully understood. Strides have been made under a concept known as senescence, which continues to enlighten researchers and the anti-ageing pharmaceutical industry. This article provides a short summary of what immunosenescence is and how we can utilise our understanding to develop therapies for human immunity. What is immunosenescence? Immunosenescence is the change from a healthy, active immune cell phenotype to one that is no longer conventionally active and begins to secrete inflammatory chemical messengers known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) ( Figure 1 ). A most important aspect of senescence is that a cell undergoes cell cycle arrest, meaning it cannot proliferate. You may now question why cells are programmed to senesce if the outcomes are detrimental to the host? It prevents the continued proliferation of old or damaged cells, including cells with uncontrolled proliferation (such as cancer cells). If we stop senescence altogether, we run the risk of accumulating damaged and/or mutated cells, increasing the chances of disease progression, such as through fibrosis and tumorigenesis, so specific targeting and dosage of drug interventions have to be considered. The immune system in particular, displays biological changes that are indicative of senescent progression. These include thymic involution (shrinking of the thymus associated with a decrease in T cell production), inflammaging (chronic inflammation associated with SASP), an increase in mitochondrial stress through metabolic changes, and an increase in differentiated memory T cells (EMRA T cells). Knowledge of these changes can give insight into potential mechanisms to target for therapeutics. Current and developing therapies for immunosenescence Given our expanding understanding of senescence, as of the time of writing, there are no clinically approved drugs for senescence specifically. The development of therapies for diseases such as cancer, heart disease and diabetes (diabetic patients tend to exhibit increased levels of cellular senescence owing to “accelerated ageing”) have been implicated with suppressing senescence. These drugs would be mTOR inhibitors such as Rapamycin, statins, P13K inhibitors, as well as immune checkpoint inhibitors for T cells, such as anti CTLA-4 PD-L1 and PD-L2, and the anti-diabetic metformin, which have all shown in vitro to be effective against high levels of senescent cells. There was also the development of the recent first senolytic drugs dasatinib and quercetin in 2015 that kill senescent cells selectively against non-senescent cells and stand to provide a proof of concept for targeting disease through senescent mechanisms. Conclusion The field of senescence is certainly one to keep an eye on, with a bibliometric analysis in 2023 showing an increase every year in the number of published papers ( Figure 2 ). It may be sooner rather than later that we see this become a trending topic of discussion for treating an array of disease states. Continuous research into specific immune cell subtypes (B, T and NK cells) and their relation to a decline in immunity in response to age can tell us more about potential therapeutic pathways or lifestyle choices that can improve the health of the immunocompromised elderly. One such example of this is Treg-mediated increased glucose consumption in the tumour microenvironment leading to an increase in cell senescence in effector T cells, suggesting that high sugar diets can accelerate tumorigenesis. Our understanding of ageing through senescence will help reduce the mortality rates of elderly groups in decades to come through knowing that mechanisms such as the SASP and altered immune cell function, which can promote disease states. Written by Yaseen Ahmad Related articles: Genetics of ageing and longevity / Accelerated ageing REFERENCES Henson, S.M. and Aksentijevic, D. (2021) ‘Senescence and type 2 diabetic cardiomyopathy: How young can you die of old age?’, Frontiers in Pharmacology , 12. doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.716517. Wang, R. et al. (2017) ‘Rapamycin inhibits the secretory phenotype of senescent cells by a NRF2-independent mechanism’, Aging Cell , 16(3), pp. 564–574. doi:10.1111/acel.12587. Henson, S.M. et al. (2012) ‘Reversal of functional defects in highly differentiated young and old CD8 T cells by PDL blockade’, Immunology , 135(4), pp. 355–363. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03550.x. Islam, M.T. et al. (2023) ‘Senolytic drugs, dasatinib and quercetin, attenuate adipose tissue inflammation, and ameliorate metabolic function in old age’, Aging Cell , 22(2). doi:10.1111/acel.13767. Li, C., Liu, Z. and Shi, R. (2023) ‘A comprehensive overview of cellular senescence from 1990 to 2021: A machine learning-based bibliometric analysis’, Frontiers in Medicine , 10. doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1072359. Herranz, N. and Gil, J. (2018) ‘Mechanisms and functions of cellular senescence’, Journal of Clinical Investigation , 128(4), pp. 1238–1246. doi:10.1172/jci95148. Li, L. et al. (2019) ‘TLR8-mediated metabolic control of human Treg function: A mechanistic target for cancer immunotherapy’, Cell Metabolism , 29(1). doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2018.09.020. Project Gallery

The neural pathways behind movement Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Mastering motion- reflex, rhythmic and complex movements Last updated: 12/03/25, 11:49 Published: 03/04/25, 07:00 The neural pathways behind movement Introduction Movement is arguably the most fundamental aspect of human behaviour and is one of the most obvious features distinguishing plants and animals. The ability to physically respond to stimuli has enhanced our chances of survival an immeasurable amount. As such, our body’s ability to move has evolved and refined itself over many millennia, even developing new ways to move that protect us in many ways. For example, involuntary reflexes have reduced the computational demand on our brain to move parts of our body away from hot or painful objects, making the process almost instantaneous. Meanwhile, central pattern generators (CPGs) in our spinal cord have also reduced cognitive load by carrying out subconscious movement. This has allowed the motor cortex and cerebellum to focus on planning, coordinating, and refining purposeful movements in response to sensory feedback. While movement can be separated into even more categories, understanding the neural pathways of these three types can be beneficial to uncover core concepts of human neurophysiology, and even pave the way for treating movement disabilities. With that said, let’s take a deep dive into the circuitry and principles of reflex, rhythmic, and voluntary movement. Reflex movements Reflex movements are rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli that are commonly used to help us avoid danger or harm. An example includes touching a hot object and immediately jerking our hand away from it. The goal of this form of movement is to be as quick as possible in order to avoid injury. As such the neural pathway, known as a reflex arc, is simple and can take as few as three neurons. Firstly, sensory receptors detect a stimulus, such as heat, and send a signal up towards the central nervous system (CNS) through sensory neurons. Instead of going up to the brain for processing and movement planning, the sensory neuron connects with a relay neuron in the spinal cord, and then to motor neurons. This reduces the time taken to respond as it bypasses the brain’s processing circuitry. Motor neurons then carry a signal to relevant muscles to contract and move the body away from danger. Because the signal from the sensory receptors bypasses the brain, this movement is subconscious, meaning it happens without consciously deciding to move. This makes the movement rapid and stereotyped – the motion is predictable as there is minimal planning; just a need to move anywhere away from the stimulus. Central Pattern Generators (CPGs) CPGs are networks of neurons in the spinal cord that, when activated, produce rhythmic pattern-like movement such as walking or running. This type of movement is also subconscious as it does not require active focus to perform. However, unlike reflex movements, CPG output does not require sensory activation or feedback. Instead CPGs are activated by descending pathways from the medulla – a region of the brainstem that is responsible for performing involuntary movement. CPGs typically control movements that are necessary for survival such as breathing and heartbeats. The lack of need to consciously focus on these movements allows us to instead direct our attention to more complex situations, such as responding to stimuli or achieving a specific goal. This is where voluntary movements are required. Voluntary movements Any movement performed via conscious decision-making requires activity from a range of areas in the brain. To respond to our environment, we firstly need information on what is around us. This is largely handled by the frontal lobe which perceives our external environment through sensory input and attention. Human fMRI studies have highlighted increased activity in the frontal lobe as we switch our attention, thus perceiving different parts of our external environment. This information of our environment is sent to the motor cortex which plans our next movement. Complex multi-limb movements may require additional processing from premotor and association areas. Once the movement has been planned, it then has to pass through the cerebellum, which refines specific parts of the movement, such as precise finger motion. After refinement, the movement signal is then sent to relevant muscles via motor neurons to carry out the intended movement. An example of a complex movement is reaching out and grabbing an object. This seemingly simple task requires coordinated movement of the hand, arm, shoulder, and torso to ensure we move our arm the right amount – not too far so that we go past the object, and not too near so that we do not reach it. This also requires great precision to grab the object with appropriate force, to gain a firm grip while ensuring we do not break the object. A lot of planning goes into rudimentary movements, and yet sometimes we can still get things wrong. For instance, suppose we couldn’t see the object too well so we end up going too far and missing it. This will be picked up by our sensory organs, giving our brain feedback on what we ended up doing. By comparing the actual movement with our intended movement, we can create an error signal of how far we missed and in what direction. This drives learning – by using our previous errors, we can refine our future movements to eventually achieve our intended goal. In this example, we may learn that we keep extending our arm too far, and so with repetitive trials we eventually move the right amount in order to grab the object, as we intended. The cerebellum is largely seen as responsible for motor learning, however the deep underlying mechanism is still being researched. When the same complex movement is performed again and again, it can be trained to become subconscious movements activated by spinal CPGs, gradually requiring less coordination from the motor cortex to perform. This is how common movements such as walking, go from being a strenuous task as a toddler to a simple ability requiring minimal focus as an adult. Conclusion Overall, we can see a general trend of movements requiring more parts of the CNS as they become more complex. Precise, unfamiliar movements requiring multiple limbs are the most complex, thus recruiting decision-making and motor coordination areas in order to perform. By repeating an action again and again, we can train ourselves to perform it with less and less input from higher brain regions, until it eventually becomes a subconscious coordinated act that can be performed on demand. Written by Ramim Rahman Related articles: Dopamine in the movement pathway / Mobility disorders REFERENCES Dickinson, P.S. (2006) ‘Neuromodulation of central pattern generators in invertebrates and vertebrates’, Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 16(6), pp. 604–614. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2006.10.007. Latash, M.L. (2020) Physics of biological action and perception . London, United Kingdom: Academic Press. Brent Cornell (no date) BioNinja . Available at: https://old ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-a-neurobiology-and/a4-innate-and-learned-behav/reflex-arcs.html (Accessed: 11 February 2025). Berni, D.J. (2023) The motor system , Introduction to Biological Psychology . Available at: https://openpress.sussex.ac.uk/introductiontobiologicalpsychology/chapter/the-motor-system/ (Accessed: 11 February 2025). Rossi, A.F. et al. (2008) ‘The prefrontal cortex and the executive control of attention’, Experimental Brain Research , 192(3), pp. 489–497. doi:10.1007/s00221-008-1642 z. Project Gallery

Ampere's Law and Faraday's Law Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Basics of transformer physics Last updated: 09/04/25, 15:49 Published: 24/04/25, 07:00 Ampere's Law and Faraday's Law Transformers have been around for decades. No, not the robots from the science fiction film franchise, although that would be amazing. Rather, the huge, technologically complex metal box-like things that play a key role in the electrical grid. You have likely seen transformers hidden behind extensive fencing, cabling, and ‘Danger! High Voltage!’ warning signs. These areas are not exactly accessible to tourists. Transformers play a crucial part in providing power to everything from your electric toothbrush to heating for your house to giant factories and just about anything in between. So it may come as a surprise that since their invention in the late 1800s, very little about them has changed. There are a number of different types of transformers that vary depending on voltage level, end user, location, etc. However, this article will only cover conventional transformers or, more specifically, the basic physics concepts behind how a typical transformer works. For those without a physical or electrical background, transformers can seem impossible to understand, but there are only two physics laws you need to understand: Ampere’s Law and Faraday’s Law. Ampere’s Law When charged particles like electrons flow in a particular direction, such as through a wire, this is an electric current . The moving charged particles affect the energy surrounding the wire, and we call this changing energy a magnetic field . Ampere’s Law mathematically describes the relationship between the flowing electrical current and the resultant magnetic field. The more intense the electrical current is, the stronger the magnetic field. Faraday’s Law Faraday’s Law allows us to predict how the magnetic field and the electrical current will interact. This interaction produces an electromotive force , which essentially means that as a magnetic field changes over time, it produces a force that creates or induces an electrical current. Basic physics of the transformer core Conventional transformers harness both Ampere’s Law and Faraday’s law in its core. The core is made of sheets of silicon steel, also known as electrical steel, that are very carefully stacked together. They are manufactured to form a square-like closed loop. A wire is wound on one side of the square loop, which carries the input current from the power source. On the opposite side of the square loop, a second wire is wound, which carries the output current leading farther downstream into the electrical grid. This may be to a ‘load’ or endpoint for the current, i.e. a house, warehouse, etc. Wire 1, carrying the input current, is not physically connected to Wire 2, the output current. These are two completely different wires. Ampere’s Law + Faraday’s Law is used to create, or induce , the output current in Wire 2. Recall that a moving electrical current creates a magnetic field. This is what occurs on the side of the core with Wire 1. The input current flows along Wire 1 as it coils around that side of the core, and a strong magnetic field is produced. For all intents and purposes, we can say that Wire 2 is ‘empty’, meaning that there is no input current here - it is not connected to a power source. However, as the current in Wire 1 produces a magnetic field, this field affects the energy around Wire 2 and induces a current in Wire 2, which then flows out of the transformer farther into the electrical grid. While there are different types of transformers with varying core configurations as well as additional complex physics to consider during manufacturing, it is too extensive to consider in this article. However, the processes described here form the basis of conventional transformer physics. Written by Amber Elinsky Related article: Wireless electricity Project Gallery

Unveiling the paradigm shift in cognitive impairment through machine learning Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Brain metastasis hacks brain activity and jams neuronal communication Last updated: 29/05/25, 10:46 Published: 29/05/25, 07:00 Unveiling the paradigm shift in cognitive impairment through machine learning Understanding the impact of brain metastasis on neuronal communication Introduction Researchers from the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and the Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO) have made a ground-breaking discovery related to brain metastasis and its impact on brain activity and neuronal communication. This finding could potentially explain why half of all patients with brain metastasis experience cognitive impairment. Understanding the influence on neural circuits The research , published in Cancer Cell, aimed to comprehend how brain metastasis affects the functionality of neuronal circuits beyond the physical mass of the tumour. The researchers conducted multidimensional modelling of brain functional analyses in the context of brain metastasis and tested various preclinical models from different primary sources and oncogenic profiles. The study was able to separate the effect on local field potential oscillatory activity from cortical and hippocampal areas. This helped researchers learn more about the different ways that brain metastasis can affect people. The authors highlighted the importance of this comprehensive approach in unravelling the complex dynamics of brain metastasis. Detecting metastases through electrical activity Through the measurement of electrical activity in the brains of mice with and without metastases, the researchers discovered distinct electrophysiological differences between the two groups. The researchers used artificial intelligence to confirm that metastases were indeed to blame for these differences. Using an automatic algorithm trained with numerous electrophysiological recordings, the researchers developed a model that could accurately identify the presence of metastases. Furthermore, the algorithm demonstrated the ability to distinguish metastases originating from different primary tumours, such as skin, lung, and breast cancer. These findings provide clear evidence of the specific impact that metastasis has on the brain's electrical activity. Paradigm shift in understanding brain metastases The study represents a significant paradigm shift in the understanding of brain metastases. Traditionally, neurological dysfunction in patients with brain metastasis was attributed solely to the physical mass effect of the tumour. However, this research indicates that changes in brain activity resulting from tumour-induced biochemical and molecular alterations also contribute to these symptoms. The implications of this paradigm shift are far-reaching and have potential implications for the prevention, early diagnosis, and treatment of brain metastasis. By recognising that neurological symptoms are not solely due to the physical presence of the tumour, medical professionals can explore novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. Potential therapeutic targets Looking ahead, the researchers are eager to explore potential therapeutic targets that can protect the brain from cancer-induced disruptions in neuronal circuits. They aim to identify molecules involved in metastasis-induced changes in neuronal communication, intending to evaluate them as possible therapeutic targets. The researchers want to create strategies that might stop or lessen the neurological dysfunction that patients frequently experience by understanding the biochemical and molecular changes brought on by brain metastasis. This could lead to advancements in the prevention, early diagnosis, and treatment of brain metastasis, ultimately improving patient outcomes. Conclusion The groundbreaking studies carried out by the Spanish National Research Council and the Spanish National Cancer Research Centre have shed light on how brain metastasis affects brain activity and neuronal communication. By dissociating the effects of tumour mass from changes in brain activity, the study has revealed the complex dynamics of brain metastasis and its contribution to cognitive impairment in patients. The discovery of distinct electrophysiological differences and the development of an algorithm to detect metastases offer promising opportunities for early diagnosis and personalised treatment. This paradigm shift in understanding brain metastases opens the door for novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, as well as the exploration of potential therapeutic targets to protect the brain from cancer-induced disruptions. With further research, it is hopeful that advancements in the prevention, early diagnosis, and treatment of brain metastasis will improve patient outcomes and lead to a better understanding of neurological dysfunction in these patients. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Cancer on the move / Cancer magnets / Latent space transformations / Uploading brain to a computer REFERENCE Sanchez-Aguilera A, Masmudi-Martín M, Navas-Olive A, Baena P, Hernández-Oliver C, Priego N, Cordón-Barris L, Alvaro-Espinosa L, García S, Martínez S et al : Machine learning identifies experimental brain metastasis subtypes based on their influence on neural circuits . Cancer Cell 2023, 41 (9):1637-1649.e1611. Project Gallery

Health in Syria and Lebanon are hindered by inequities and inequalities stemming primarily from warfare Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Syria and Lebanon’s diverging yet connected struggles Last updated: 03/06/25, 14:00 Published: 03/06/25, 13:43 Health in Syria and Lebanon are hindered by inequities and inequalities stemming primarily from warfare This is article no. 4 in a series about global health injustices. Previous article: Yemen- a neglected humanitarian crisis . Next article: Injustices in conflicted Kashmir (coming soon). Introduction Welcome to the fourth article of the Global Health Injustices Series. The previous article discussed Yemen, specifically how the health and well-being of the population are affected by the intricate geopolitics at play. In this article, I collaborated with Jana Antar , to discuss Syria and Lebanon. Although these countries border one another, they encounter distinct challenges. Similar to previous articles, the health and wellbeing of the Syrian and Lebanese people are hindered by the inequities and inequalities stemming primarily from warfare. Impact of war on healthcare: Syria's deliberate destruction Since the onset of the Syrian conflict in 2011, the country’s healthcare system has been systematically dismantled. Beyond the direct casualties of war, the destruction of hospitals, clinics, and medical supply chains has led to a secondary crisis, one where preventable deaths become inevitable. Between 2011 and 2020, Physicians for Human Rights documented nearly 600 attacks on healthcare facilities. The deliberate targeting of hospitals and medical personnel has rendered healthcare not just a casualty of war, but a weapon of war itself ( Figure 1 ). This destruction has had catastrophic consequences. Maternal and infant mortality rates have soared, vaccination coverage has plummeted, and chronic disease management has become nearly impossible. In the northwest of Syria, where displaced populations reside in makeshift camps, infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis continue to spread due to poor sanitation and lack of medical oversight. The COVID-19 pandemic only exacerbated these challenges, whereby 46% of reported cases in Northwest Syria resulted in death due to the collapse of medical infrastructure. As of early 2025, only 57% of hospitals and 37% of primary healthcare centres in Syria remain fully functional. The remaining facilities operate under severe constraints due to damage from attacks and resource shortages. In 2024 alone, there were 77 attacks on healthcare facilities, further disrupting access to trauma care, maternal health, and treatment for chronic illnesses. Overcrowding in displacement camps and poor sanitation have also heightened the risk of outbreaks such as tuberculosis, making urgent intervention critical ( Figure 2 ). Impact of war on healthcare: Lebanon's fragile healthcare system Lebanon, a country once regarded as a regional medical hub, has borne the brunt of Syria’s refugee crisis. With an estimated 1.5 million Syrian refugees seeking shelter within its borders, the country has faced a 50% surge in demand for healthcare services. The healthcare system, already strained before the crisis, has since crumbled under the weight of economic collapse, political instability, and donor fatigue. The Lebanese economic crisis, which began in 2019, had devastating effects on healthcare delivery. The Lebanese pound has lost over 90% of its value, placing essential medical supplies out of reach for hospitals and individuals. Pharmacies frequently run out of life-saving medications, power outages disrupt critical care units, and the departure of healthcare professionals has left hospitals understaffed. The situation has worsened due to escalating hostilities, starting from the south of Lebanon and later expanding, displacing over 112,000 people as of February 2025. The violence has led to the closure of 130 primary health centres and seven hospitals, with 15 out of 153 hospitals either non-functional or operating at reduced capacity. In Nabatieh Governorate alone, 40% of hospital bed capacity has been lost. Attacks on health workers and facilities continued to mount between January and November 2024, when 137 attacks were reported, nearly half of which resulted in fatalities. These disruptions create a ripple effect, limiting immediate medical care and undermining public health initiatives such as vaccination programs and maternal health services. NGOs: the last line of defence In the face of government inaction, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have become the backbone of healthcare provision in Syria and Lebanon. International and local NGOs have mobilised to provide vaccination campaigns, mental health support, and medical supplies to those in need. For example, WHO and UNICEF have facilitated vaccination drives, reaching 250,000 children under five years old, 30% of whom were displaced Syrians. However, while NGOs have played a crucial role in mitigating healthcare crises, their efforts remain primarily reactive rather than systemic and preventative, addressing immediate needs without long-term sustainability, and not adequately focusing on precautionary measures to avoid these undesirable situations. In fact, NGOs face mounting challenges. The overwhelming demand for services, lack of sustainable funding, and security threats have made it increasingly difficult for organisations to operate. Moreover, while NGOs are stretched in their deliverables, the humanitarian workers encounter frequent targeting, making their mission even more perilous. Conclusion: the role of the international community The crises in Syria and Lebanon are not isolated events; they are a reflection of global health injustices that demand international attention and intervention. Providing short-term aid is no longer enough, so long-term solutions must be prioritised to rebuild these destroyed healthcare systems. Moreover, de-escalating both crises would improve health outcomes for the vulnerable communities in Syria and Lebanon. The next article will focus on the population in conflicted Kashmir; addressing their injustices is crucial because of the profound impact and lack of coverage in mainstream discussions. Written by Jana Antar and Sam Jarada REFERENCES A Decade of Destruction: Attacks on health care in Syria. The IRC. 2025. Available from: https://www.rescue.org/report/decade-destruction-attacks-health-care-syria-0 The Syrian Conflict: Eight Years of Devastation and Destruction of the Health System - PHR. PHR. 202. Available from: https://phr.org/our-work/resources/the-syrian-conflict-eight-years-of-devastation-and-destruction-of-the-health-system/ Ammar W, Kdouh O, Hammoud R, Hamadeh R, Harb H, Ammar Z, et al. Health system resilience: Lebanon and the Syrian refugee crisis. Journal of Global Health. 2016 Dec;6(2). Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5234495/ Lebanon 2025 Indicators and Targets Lebanon Multi-year Strategy 2023 -2025. Available from: https://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/2025-01/Lebanon%20-%20Strategy%202023%20%E2%80%93%202025_0.pdf Lebanon | Humanitarian Action. Humanitarianaction.info . 2024. Available from: https://humanitarianaction.info/document/global-humanitarian-overview-2025/article/lebanon-1 WHO. WHO’s Health Emergency Appeal 2025 [Internet]. 2025. Available from: https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/documents/emergencies/2025-appeals/2025-hea-lebanon.pdf?sfvrsn=45f2a018_5&download=true Lebanon’s Pharmaceutical Sector: Challenges, Opportunities, and Strategic Solutions. LCPS. 2025. Available from: https://www.lcps lebanon.org/en/articles/details/4903/lebanon%E2%80%99s-pharmaceutical-sector-challenges-opportunities-and-strategic-solutions Sousa C, Akesson B, Badawi D. “Most importantly, I hope God keeps illness away from us”: The context and challenges surrounding access to health care for Syrian refugees in Lebanon. Global Public Health. 2020 Jun 12;1–10. Syrian refugee access to healthcare in Lebanon - Lebanon. ReliefWeb. 2020. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/lebanon/syrian-refugee-access-healthcare-lebanon World. Lebanon: a conflict particularly destructive to health care [Internet]. Who.int . World Health Organization: WHO; 2024. Available from: https://www.who.int/news/item/22-11-2024-lebanon--a-conflict-particularly-destructive-to-health-care Project Gallery

Dysregulation of this pathway occurs in many different types of cancers Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The MAPK/ERK signalling pathway in cancer Last updated: 24/02/25, 11:29 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Dysregulation of this pathway occurs in many different types of cancers Introduction The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathway is an important pathway in apoptosis, proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis and metastasis. It is a protein kinase pathway (causes phosphorylation) with between 3-5 sets of kinases and is known to be activated via Ras, KC-mediated (Kupffer cells/liver macrophages), Ca2+, or G protein-coupled receptors. The MAPK/ERK pathway, also known as the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK pathway, is conserved in mammals, and dysregulation of this pathway occurs in many different types of cancers. MAPK/ERK function Ras (GTPase) activates Raf (serine/threonine kinase), which activates MEK1/2 (tyrosine & serine/threonine kinases) and ERK1/2 (serine/threonine kinases), which controls certain transcription factors. ERK1/2 also phosphorylates various substrates in the cytoplasm (not shown). This results in gene expression, which can cause apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, differentiation, proliferation, etc. (Fig. 1). It is estimated that there are more than 150 target substrates of ERK1/2, either directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Ras and RAF have several different subtypes which have different functions. Ras has four different subtypes, which are the GTPases: HRAS, KRAS4A/4B, and NRAS, with KRAS being the common form found in human cancers. RAF has subtypes, which are the kinases: ARAF, BRAF, and CRAF (in humans). Ras is activated when GRB2 (growth-factor-receptor bound protein 2) binds to SOS (son of sevenless). This occurs via the complex moving to the cell membrane upon activation of a transmembrane receptor, such as EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor). SOS transports the signal from the receptor to RAS and aids in the conversion of RAS-GDP to RAS-GTP. This switches ‘on’ RAF, which leads to the phosphorylation of MEK and ERK (Fig. 1). ERK is then able to move into the nucleus and alter gene expression, of genes such as CREB, MYC, FOS, MSK, ELK, JUN, etc., which are involved in processes such as metabolism, proliferation, angiogenesis (formation of blood vessels), haematopoiesis (formation of blood cells), wound healing, differentiation, inflammation, and cancer. However, ERK is also able to activate other substrates in the cytoplasm, such as BIM, RSK, MNK, and MCL, which are involved in processes such as apoptosis and blood pressure regulation. A regular level of ERK expression is needed for activation of genes involved in the cell cycle and to inhibit negative cell cycle control. ERK phosphorylates Cyclin D and Cdk4/6, which are bound together and aid the cell in the movement from G1 (gap) to the S phase (DNA synthesis/repair) of the cell cycle. MAPK/ERK pathway in cancer The MAPK/ERK pathway has been linked with many cancers, such as colon, thyroid, melanoma, pancreatic, lung, and glioblastoma. Mutations in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), Ras, and Raf are well-known to cause cancer, with an estimated 33% of cancers containing Ras mutations, and an estimated 8% being caused by Raf mutations. It is also estimated that 85% of cancers have elevated activity of MEK. The MAPK/ERK pathway has also been shown to interact with the PI3K/Akt pathway, which controls the cell cycle and causes increased cell proliferation, which is obviously an important factor in tumourigenesis (tumour initiation). Regulation of the MAPK/ERK pathway There is a negative feedback mechanism of ERK1/2 on RAS/RAF/MEK, by ERK1/2 phosphorylating SOS, which causes the RAF-RAS link to be disrupted. ERK also inhibits MEK via the phosphorylation of BRAF and CRAF. There are inhibitors for Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK, but not all of these inhibitors work well/are without issues. ERK is problematic, in that their ATP-binding sites are very like cell cycle proteins, so are more difficult to inhibit. Also, it is difficult to target Ras due to its high GTP binding affinity, profuse cellular GTP, and lack of appropriate binding pockets. Therefore, the main focus currently appears to be on Raf/MEK inhibition. Raf inhibitors include drugs such as sorafenib, vemurafenib, encorafenib, and dabrafenib (these drugs are used on specific BRAF mutations). On the other hand, MEK inhibitors include drugs such as trametinib, cobimetinib, binimetinib, and selumetinib (these drugs can be used on specific mutations in Ras and Ras/Raf). Negative feedback mechanisms tightly control the MEK/ERK pathway and therefore great care is taken with inhibitor drug doses. To illustrate, if the doses are too low, the negative feedback loops are activated, which can lead to drug resistance/ poor therapeutic outcome. Conclusion The MAPK/ERK pathway is essential for several cellular processes, such as apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, differentiation, and proliferation. Therefore, it has a critical role in tumourigenesis. Raf and MEK in particular are susceptible to inhibition, which has led to the production of several different drugs for use in various types of cancer. There are currently other clinical trials in progress, and these will hopefully lead to further therapies for other cancers involved in this pathway. Written by Eleanor R Markham Related articles: HIPPO signalling pathway / Thyroid cancer REFERENCES Lake, D., Corrêa, S.A.L. & Müller, J. Negative feedback regulation of the ERK1/2 MAPK pathway. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 73 , 4397–4413 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-016-2297-8 Song Y, Bi Z, Liu Y, Qin F, Wei Y, Wei X. Targeting RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK signaling pathway in human cancer: Current status in clinical trials. Genes Dis. 2022 May 20;10(1):76-88. doi: 10.1016/j.gendis.2022.05.006. PMID: 37013062; PMCID: PMC10066287 Ullah R, Yin Q, Snell AH, Wan L. RAF-MEK-ERK pathway in cancer evolution and treatment. Semin Cancer Biol. 2022 Oct;85:123-154. doi: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.05.010. Epub 2021 May 13. PMID: 33992782. Project Gallery

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Impact of war and geopolitics on health in Palestine Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Life under occupation: the health and well-being of Palestinians Last updated: 17/04/25, 10:19 Published: 13/03/25, 08:00 Impact of war and geopolitics on health in Palestine This is article no. 1 in a series about global health injustices. Next article: Civil war in Sudan . Introduction Welcome to the Global Health Injustices Series, which will focus on critically examining the health inequalities and inequities faced by vulnerable populations within different countries and regions worldwide and even put forward actionable steps to improve their health and wellbeing. This series will begin with Palestine, as it has been an enduring crisis that should be addressed to include long-lasting benefits and outcomes for the Palestinians. Palestine: from a rich history to current occupation Palestine is a country in the Middle East (West Asia) mainly bordered by Israel. Palestine is unique in its various cultures and knowledge, moulded by multifaceted events and geopolitical shifts over centuries. The multidimensional cultural landscape of Palestine illustrates the impact of civilisations, such as the Romans, Byzantines, and Ottomans, who each had their religions, languages, and cultures, which still exist in various forms today. The resilience of the Palestinians is evident through their distinct traditions, art, food and environment, which are essential to their identity. With these testaments in mind, Palestinians are facing consistent strife because they are under constant occupation, blockade and cutting off of needed supplies carried out by Israel, as noted by several humanitarian and human rights non-governmental organisations (NGOs) like Amnesty International and Save the Children. These actions are facilitated by nations, notably the United States and the United Kingdom, through arms and weapons trade. Hence, the struggle for the Palestinians to have autonomy and freedom, among other human rights within their own homeland, is a consistent fight that requires ongoing international cooperation and solidarity. Geopolitics: its detrimental impacts on the Palestinians Given the currently divisive geopolitical landscape, it is essential to bring attention to the health outcomes of the Palestinian population, especially since at least half of them are children. A report from the Global Nutrition Cluster called “Nutrition Vulnerability and Situation Analysis / Gaza” had several key findings and tables (see Tables 1 and 2 ). Firstly, more than 90% of children less than a year old, along with pregnant and breastfeeding women, encounter high under-nutrition due to poverty. Another finding was that approximately 90% of children under five are impacted by at least one infectious disease, and 81% of households in Gaza lack clean and safe water. However, the authors noted limitations in their analysis, such as limited data sources because collecting it is difficult within the context of Gaza, and this was true for screening. Another report from the organisation Medical Aid For Palestinians (MAP), titled “Health Under Occupation” from 2017, discussed healthcare access and outcomes more broadly. For example, they noted that in 2016, up to one-third of patients’ permits to exit Gaza for healthcare access were either denied or delayed. Moreover, they stated that 40% of people in Gaza live below the poverty line. Given the recent geopolitical shifts in power, these findings from both reports will likely be higher now. This brings forthcoming uncertainty about whether the health outcomes of Palestinians will improve. In a recent qualitative study involving the views of Palestinian physicians in the West Bank, they shared their experiences of violence, threats of violence, issues with healthcare access for themselves and patients, financial difficulties to support their families, struggle to help their patients and limited access to education due to harsher life under occupation. Thinking more largely about emergency care in Palestine, one scoping review reported the depletion of healthcare resources such as medical equipment and medications. The authors even related how human rights violations and the destruction of the Palestinian healthcare system, including emergencies, have exacerbated outcomes; the most notable were stroke, myocardial infarction and traumatic injury, among other non-infectious diseases. Although the authors included this information from a human rights standpoint, they called for additional interventions and research to fill in and learn gaps within emergency care to enhance health outcomes for Palestinians. This review was published in 2022, and again, many geopolitical shifts in power have taken place within a few years. Therefore, it can be deduced that emergency care is drastically needed for the Palestinians; this is primarily compelled by the blockade in Gaza and occupation in the West Bank. Focusing on the mental health outcomes among Palestinians, they have become worse. In another scoping review, researchers focused on trauma among young Palestinian people in Gaza; the authors noted that events, such as exposure to devastation and violence, as well as the death or loss of friends and family, have contributed to mental health outcomes ranging from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to depression. Nevertheless, the authors stated that further qualitative research is vital to addressing gaps in knowledge and enhancing mental health outcomes among the Palestinian youth and the wider population. Connecting back to how the modern geopolitical landscape is very dynamic, the poorer mental health outcomes among Palestinians have conceivably increased. Urgent calls to action: recommendations from NGOs to upholding human rights Given all of these detrimental impacts on the health and wellbeing of Palestinians, there are recommendations from organisations, notably the United Nations (UN), for ways forward towards upholding the human rights of Palestinians: Immediately end all practices of collective punishment, including lifting its blockade and closures – and the “complete siege”- of Gaza, and urgently ensure immediate access to humanitarian and commercial goods throughout Gaza, commensurate with the immense humanitarian needs. Ensure that all Palestinians forcibly displaced from Gaza are allowed to return to their homes creating safe conditions and fulfil its responsibilities as an occupying Power in this regard. End the 56-year occupation of the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem as part of a broader process towards achieving equality, justice, democracy, non-discrimination, and the fulfilment of all human rights for all Palestinians. These recommendations, among others mentioned in the report from the United Nations (UN) High Commissioner for Human Rights, were divulged in 2024; the year had been a challenging time, particularly in Gaza, due to the complete blockade of food, water and essentials like medical supplies; in addition to this, many explosives were dropped on Gaza, killing thousands of men, women and children. Finally, buildings, such as hospitals and homes, were destroyed. Conclusion: moving forward towards a equitable and equal future for Palestinians Reflecting on everything discussed in this article, the numerous injustices happening to Palestinians must not go on; they have been suppressed for nearly 75 years by governments and the mainstream media before receiving closer attention, examination and debate within Western society recently. Therefore, we need to take actionable steps by initiating more open discussions of justice and advocacy involving the voices of Palestinians, such as myself and others. Furthermore, it is crucial always to nudge those in positions of power worldwide to fulfil their responsibilities as civil servants and defend human rights for everyone. Both of these actions uphold the health and wellbeing of Palestinians living in Gaza and the West Bank, especially as enabling the recommendations from the UN and other NGOs. As for the wider international community, we must continue upholding human rights to maintain our health and wellbeing. In my next article, I will discuss Sudan because this population has also encountered many injustices, primarily the civil war that has been occurring since 2023. This has impacted the health and wellbeing of the Sudanese population, which requires thorough attention and discussion. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: A perspective on well-being / Gentrification and well-being REFERENCES Human rights in Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territory. Amnesty International. 2022. Available from: https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/middle-east/israel-and-the-occupied-palestinian-territory/report-israel-and-the-occupied-palestinian-territory/ Occupied Palestinian Territory. Save the Children International. 2024. Available from: https://www.savethechildren.net/occupied-palestinian-territory Nutrition Vulnerability and Situation Analysis / Gaza. 2024. Available from: https://www.nutritioncluster.net/sites/nutritioncluster.com/files/2024-02/GAZA-Nutrition-vulnerability-and-SitAn-v7.pdf HEALTH UNDER OCCUPATION. Medical Aid For Palestinians. 2017. Available from: https://www.map.org.uk/downloads/health-under-occupation---map-report-2017.pdf Husam Dweik, Hadwan AA, Beesan Maraqa, Taher A, Zink T. Perspectives of Palestinian physicians on the impact of the Gaza War in the West Bank. SSM - Qualitative Research in Health. 2024 Nov 14;6:100504–4. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667321524001136 Rosenbloom R, Leff R. Emergency Care in the Occupied Palestinian Territory: A Scoping Review. Health and Human Rights. 2022 Dec;24(2):255. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9790939/ Abdallah Abudayya, Fugleberg T, Nyhus HB, Radwan Aburukba, Tofthagen R. Consequences of war-related traumatic stress among Palestinian young people in the Gaza Strip: A scoping review. Mental Health & Prevention. 2023 Nov 25;32:200305–5. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212657023000478 M.I. Human rights situation in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, and the obligation to ensure accountability and justice - Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights - Advance unedited version (A/HRC/55/28) - Question of Palestine. United Nations. Available from: https://www.un.org/unispal/document/human-rights-situation-in-opt-unohchr-23feb-2024/ Project Gallery