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Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link An introduction to stem cells and their transformative potential 06/02/25, 12:13 Last updated: Published: 06/09/24, 11:28 A basic outline This is Article 1 in a three-part series on stem cells. Next article: The role of mesenchymal stem cells . Welcome to the first article in a series of three articles about stem cells, where I will introduce stem cells and how they differentiate. Stem cells are a remarkable type of cells that can become other types. They are divided into two main categories: adult stem cells (ASCs) and pluripotent stem cells. ASCs can differentiate into cells of specific tissues and organs. Pluripotent stem cells can differentiate into all cells in the human body and can further be split into embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). ASCs are also known as non-embryonic or somatic stem cells, referring to cells that come from non-reproductive cells, not egg or sperm cells. Some examples of ASCs include mesenchymal cells, epithelial cells and skin cells. These cells are mainly used to replace and repair dead or damaged tissues and organs damaged by disease, injury or ageing. They may stay non-dividing (quiescent) but promptly differentiate in different cell types when needed. ESCs do not come from fertilised eggs but rather from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst. A blastocyst is a group of dividing cells originating from a fertilised egg 3-5 days after fertilisation. After scientists have received informed consent, the cells are fertilised in vitro, outside a living organism, such as in a laboratory. iPSCs are created in a laboratory by mixing ASCs and ESCs. Scientists generate them by transcription-factor transduction, a type of nuclear reprogramming. Nuclear reprogramming and stem cell differentiation Nuclear reprogramming is when the nucleus of a cell is introduced into the cytoplasm of a new cell. The transfer results in changes in gene expression. In 2010, scientists Shinya Yamanaka and Helen M. Blau published a review of three alternative approaches in nuclear reprogramming to restore a cell's pluripotent state: nuclear transfer, cell fusion and transcription-factor transduction. Nuclear transfer involves moving the nucleus from a specialised cell into an egg cell with no nucleus. This can be done with oocytes or fertilised eggs during specific cell cycle phases. The reprogramming factors in the egg cell activate genes in the transferred nucleus, causing the nucleus to express genes typical of embryonic stem cells. Through this process, a specialised cell can adopt the characteristics of embryonic stem cells and potentially develop into any cell type in the body. Cell fusion is when two different cells merge to form a single hybrid cell. During cell fusion, the membranes of the two cells join, allowing their contents to mix. This merging of cells can lead to combining genetic material and cellular components from both cells. Transcription-factor transduction involves introducing specific genes called transcription factors ( Oct4 , Sox2 , Klf4 and c- Myc ) into adult cells to reprogram them into iPSCs. Conclusion Stem cells have a huge potential in medicine and research due to the different types having different functions. While the process of nuclear reprogramming does pose some challenges, such as the difficulty in ensuring that reprogrammed cells are safe and don't develop into tumours, ultimately, a better understanding of the mechanisms behind this process will allow scientists to leverage the potential of these cells, allowing them to be used in regenerative medicine. Watch out for the next article in the series, where I will discuss the role of stem cells in regenerative medicine! Written by Naoshin Haque Related article: iPSCs and organoids Project Gallery

By no means is this an exhaustive list on all the terminology relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. For more information, please refer to the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). AAdenovirus- a group of related viruses. They were first removed from human adenoid glands (found at the back of the throat), hence the name. Asymptomatic- where a person is infected by the virus but does not present any symptoms. Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Glossary for COVID-19 terms Last updated: 23/01/25 Published: 28/12/22 Key terms By no means is this an exhaustive list on all the terminology relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. For more information, please refer to the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). – A Adenovirus- a group of related viruses. They were first removed from human adenoid glands (found at the back of the throat), hence the name. Asymptomatic- where a person is infected by the virus but does not present any symptoms. Can still pass the virus and infection onto others. C Coronavirus- a group of related viruses that cause diseases in mammals and birds. Named after the crown-like spike protein on the virus’s surface- ‘corona’ in Latin for crown. COVID-19/ COVID – the disease that coronavirus causes D DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid, the cell’s code to life. DNA instructs how to make proteins, which are essential for function in the body. Double helix. E Epicentre- the central point of the virus outbreak. This changed during the COVID-19 pandemic depending on the variant of virus. Epidemic- an outbreak in a localised area at a particular time H Herd immunity- when enough people are protected against the disease, that it lends immunity to those who are not protected. Can achieve protection against the disease through either previous infection, and/ or vaccination. I Immunity- achieving immunity means to be protected from future infections by viruses, and bacteria for example. You can achieve immunity through either previous infection, and/ or vaccination. Immunosuppressed- the immune system is suppressed. In other words, people who are immunosuppressed have a reduced ability to fight diseases. Thus preventing them from being infected in the first place is of great importance. Infection- the unnormal invasion of microorganisms into the body. Some infections present symptoms- at least straight away- while others do not show any symptoms. L Lockdown- preventing people from leaving where they are, to stop the transmission and contain the virus in the COVID-19 pandemic. M Mass vaccination- vaccinating many people in a certain area at a particular time mRNA- messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid). Single helix. Acts as a go-between for DNA and the proteins that are being made. P Pandemic- a global, or national outbreak Protein- an important molecule. Used as a fuel source, a building block, a carrier among other things, in the human body. R Restrictions- impeding or hindering movement and travel during the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to contain the spread of the virus and curb transmission. S Shedding- (in biology) refers to viruses casting off viral particles which can then infect others Side effects- effects that are different and potentially harmful from the main, intended effects of a medication, treatment, or vaccine. Examples of some side effects: headaches, aches, pains, fever. Symptomatic- where a person is infected with the virus and does present symptoms. Can still pass the virus and infection onto others. Symptoms- the signs a person has been infected; this can be physical or mental. With COVID-19, you can show symptoms as symptomatic, or not present symptoms as asymptomatic, if infected. Examples of symptoms for COVID-19 include loss of taste and smell, a persistent cough, fever. T Transmission- how a particular disease, in this case coronavirus, is passed from one person to another. V Vaccination- the administration of vaccine into the body. Vaccine- a form of active immunity, where a weakened, live version of the infection agent is administered into the body. The immune system kicks in and destroys the infection agent, but not before taking note of the genetic material (e.g. mRNA or DNA from the protein) from the agent. The immune system will use this genetic material to ‘remember’ the infection next time it appears, so it can prepare a speedier, more efficient response. Vaccine hesitancy- uncertainty as to whether people should take the vaccine. This could be due to a variety of reasons: being unfamiliar with the vaccine and its contents, and/ or being distrusting of the government and those in the health organisation. Viral load- the amount of virus (or viral genetic material) a person has in their body at a particular time. A person not infected with the virus will have no viral load, whereas a person infected with the virus will have a much higher viral load. Virus- a microorganism. Some spread diseases as vectors, while some are ‘better’. To date, it is being argued whether viruses are alive or not. W Wuhan- Capital of Hubei Province in China. First epicentre of coronavirus. Written by Manisha Halkhoree Related article: The origins of COVID-19

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Exploring food at a molecular level 05/02/25, 16:28 Last updated: Published: 13/05/24, 14:46 Molecular gastronomy Imagine taking a bite of your favourite dish, not just savouring the flavours, but peering into the very essence of its existence. That's the realm of molecular gastronomy, a fascinating exploration of food through the lens of science. This article takes you on a journey at the microscopic level of what fuels the human body. The foundation of all food lies in macromolecules, large molecules formed from the intricate assembly of smaller ones. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are the main players, each with unique structures and roles. Carbohydrates: These sugary giants, like starches and sugars, provide our bodies with energy. Imagine them as long chains of sugar molecules linked together, like beads on a necklace. Proteins: The workhorses of the cellular world, proteins are responsible for countless functions. They're built from amino acids, each with a distinct side chain, creating a diverse and essential cast of characters. Lipids: Fats and oils, these slippery molecules store energy and form cell membranes. Think of them as greasy chains with attached rings, like chubby tadpoles swimming in oil. The symphony of cooking and the final dance Applying heat, pressure, and chemical reactions, chefs become culinary alchemists at the molecular level. Water, the universal solvent, facilitates the movement and interaction of these molecules. As we cook, proteins unfold and rearrange, starches break into sugars, and fats melt and release flavours. Maillard Reaction: This browning phenomenon, responsible for the delicious crust and crunch on your food, arises from the dance between sugars and amino acids. Imagine them waltzing and exchanging partners, creating new flavorful molecules that paint your food with golden hues. Emulsification: Oil and water don't mix, but lecithin, a molecule found in egg yolks, acts as a matchmaker. It bridges the gap between these unlikely partners, allowing for the creation of creamy sauces and fluffy cakes. Think of lecithin as a tiny cupid, shooting arrows of attraction between oil and water droplets. Saponification: Techniques like spherification use alginate and calcium to create edible spheres filled with liquid, transforming into playful pearls that burst with flavor in your mouth. A world of potential Understanding food at the molecular level unlocks a treasure trove of possibilities. It can help us create healthier, more sustainable food choices, develop personalized nutrition plans, and even combat food-borne illnesses. By peering into the microscopic world of our meals, we gain a deeper appreciation for the magic that happens on our plates, bite after delicious bite. So next time you savor a meal, remember the intricate dance of molecules that brought it to life. From the building blocks of carbohydrates to the symphony of cooking, food is a story written in the language of chemistry, waiting to be deciphered and enjoyed. Written by Navnidhi Sharma Related articles: Emotional chemistry on a molecular level / Food prices and malnutrition / Vitamins References and further readings: Chapter 2: Protein structure . (2019, July 10). Chemistry. https://wou.edu/chemistry/courses/online-chemistry-textbooks/ch450-and-ch451-biochemistry-d efining-life-at-the-molecular-level/chapter-2-protein-structure/ Gan, J., Siegel, J. B., & German, J. B. (2019). Molecular annotation of food - Towards personalized diet and precision health. Trends in Food Science & Technology , 91 , 675–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.07.016 Grant, P. (2020, August 4). Sugar, fiber, starch: What’s A carbohydrate? — Pamela Grant, L.Ac , NTP. Pamela Grant, L.Ac , NTP . https://pamela-grant.com/blog-ss/sugar-fiber-starch Helmenstine, A. (2022, October 25). Examples of carbohydrates . Science Notes and Projects. https://sciencenotes.org/examples-of-carbohydrates/ Project Gallery

Resources specific to A-levels to help students with revision. A-levels Are you a student currently studying A-levels, or looking to choose them in the near future? Read below for tips and guidance! You may also like: IB resources , University prep and Extra resources What are A-levels? Jump to resources A-levels, short for Advanced Level qualifications, are a widely recognised and highly regarded educational program typically taken by students in the United Kingdom (UK) and some other countries. They are usually studied in the final two years of secondary education, typically between the ages of 16 and 18. A-levels offer students the opportunity to specialise in specific subjects of their choice. Students typically choose three or four subjects to study, although this may vary depending on the educational institution. The subjects available can be diverse, covering areas such as sciences, humanities, social sciences, languages, and arts. How are A-levels graded? The A-level grading system is based on a letter grade scale in the UK. Here's an overview of the A-level grading system: Grades: A* (pronounced "A-star"): The highest grade achievable, demonstrating exceptional performance. A: Excellent performance, indicating a strong understanding of the subject. B: Very good performance, showing a solid grasp of the subject. C: Good performance, representing a satisfactory level of understanding. D: Fair performance, indicating a basic understanding of the subject. E: Marginal performance, showing a limited understanding of the subject. U: Ungraded, indicating that the student did not meet the minimum requirements to receive a grade. What are the benefits of studying A-level? A-levels provide students with a variety of advantages, such as a solid academic foundation for further education, the chance to focus on interest-specific areas, and flexibility in planning their course of study. Transferable abilities like critical thinking, problem-solving, and independent research are developed in A-levels, improving both prospects for entrance to universities and future employment opportunities. These widely respected credentials encourage intellectual vigour, intellectual curiosity, and a love of lifelong study. A-levels provide students with a strong foundation for success in higher education and a variety of career pathways thanks to their academic rigour and global renown. Resources for revision Web sites to hel p Maths / Maths and Further Maths Chemistry / Chemrevise / Chemguide Biology / Quizzes Physics: A-level Physics / Isaac Physics Computer Science topic-by-topic Teach Computer Science Psychology All subjects / Seneca Learning / Save My Exams Physics and Maths Tutor YouTube channels to hel p Chemistry- Allery Chemistry and Eliot Rintoul Past p apers Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Maths Textbooks (depend on exam board) CGP range for Bio, Chem, Phys, and Maths- exam practice workbooks

Since 2006 when the link between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal degeneration and TDP-43 mutations was demonstrated by Arai et al., it has remained a focus in neurological academia. This is for good reason; the research boom around the role of TDP-43 in neurodegeneration has elucidated links between TDP-43, parkinsonism and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link TDP-43 and Me: the Neurodegenerative Impact of Gene Misplacement in Parkinsonism Last updated: 18/11/24 Published: 06/04/23 Practice and Progress in Neurology Since 2006 when the link between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal degeneration and TDP-43 mutations was demonstrated by Arai et al., it has remained a focus in neurological academia. This is for good reason; the research boo m around the role of TDP-43 in neurodegeneration has elucidated link s between TDP-43, parkinsonism and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). The link between point mutations, deletions and loss of gene function in PRKN has long been established, but has yet to lead to the development of a targeted therapeutic treatment. PRKN is involved in the tagging of excess or faulty proteins with ubiquitin, which leads to degradation of the proteins in the ubiquitin/proteasome system (UPS)- a system characterised in medical neurology by its potential to cause serious neurological disorders. This places parkinsonism in a domain of neurodegenerative disorders sharing a common root in UPS dysfunction, including Alzheimer’s Disease, multiple sclerosis and Huntington’s Disease. Panda et al. (2022) demonstrated how the dysfunction of the UPS due to PRKN aberration inhibits the breakdown of the damaging TDP-43 aggregates which develop in human brains in response to mutation or stress. In healthy people, autophagic granules would attack and kill off these TDP-43 aggregates as an end result of the UPS , but due to aberrations in PRKN the UPS is inhibited in those afflicted with parkinsonism, causing neurodegeneration. The discovery of how TDP-43 and parkinsonism are linked could lead to the development of a treatment mimicking the organic catalyst of the TDP-43 aggregate breakdown to replicate UPS, reducing TDP-43 aggregate volume and by proxy, inhibiting neurodegeneration. In 2007, research by Esper et al. catalysed recognition of drug-induced Parkinsonism as severely underdiagnosed, with evidence proving even neurologists fail to effectively remember which medications cause parkinsonism. Fast halting of the inciting agent is necessary for the reversal of all parkinsonism symptoms, but in some patients, cognitive symptoms may persist for a time after the medication is stopped. In response to the novel discoveries of Panda et al. (2022), it is likely due to the aggregation of TDP-43. Another possibility is that permanent cognitive symptoms after inciting agent cessation in DIP may be due to large TDP-43 aggregates unable to be destroyed by the UPS. Further research will demonstrate whether TDP-43 aggregates become more resistant to UPS or autophagy through the progression of DIP, whether due to size or other extraneous factors. The implications of such a promising lead in neurotherapeutics for refractory parkinsonism cannot be understated. Surgical therapies have long since remained the industry standard in treating refractory parkinsonism, though this option remains prone to risk since many of those afflicted with parkinsonism are elderly, with drug-induced parkinsonism from treatment with antipsychotics, calcium channel blockers or other medications always heightening the number of the geriatric population requiring care for parkinsonism . Furthermore, the adequate treatment of those with parkinsonism in their youth could inhibit their progression to a refractory disease state in old age. Overall, the future looks very promising for those around the world suffering from all different forms of parkinsonism. Written by Aimee Wilson Related article: A common diabetes drug treating Parkinson's disease

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why representation in STEM matters Last updated: 31/03/25, 13:33 Published: 13/03/25, 08:00 Tackling stereotypes and equal access In collaboration with Stemmettes for International Women's Month Representation in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) and Science, Technology, Engineering, Art and Mathematics (STEAM), is crucial for everyone. Historically, STEM fields have been dominated by certain demographics that don’t show the true picture of our world. Maybe you grew up seeing no (or very few) women, people of colour, or other marginalised groups mentioned in your science curriculum. This needs to change because your voice, experiences and talents should be celebrated in any career you choose. Below, we’ll list some of the top reasons why representation is so important. Equal access Why does representation matter? Because it promotes equal access! Whether in an educational or career setting, seeing someone who looks like you do something you never thought possible can be life-changing. After all, you can’t be what you can’t see . Showing up in your role and sharing what you do or your STEM/STEAM interests show other people that these fields are accessible to everyone. Also, finding someone in a field you are (or would like to) get into is a great way to find a mentor, build a network, and boost your knowledge. Feeling excluded or discouraged is bound to happen at some point in your career, but anyone can succeed, no matter their background. Innovation When STEM fields are equally represented, better (and more innovative) ideas come to the table. Everything you’ve experienced can be useful in developing solutions to STEM and STEAM problems, no matter your level of education or upbringing. A lot of STEM doesn’t rely so much on your qualifications, but instead on your problem-solving, creativity, and innovation skills. For example, if you’re part of a culture that nobody else in your team has experienced, or you’ve experienced a disability and made adaptations for yourself, you bring a unique set of ideas to the table that can help solve many different problems. Inclusion There are many examples of when certain demographics haven’t been included in STEM decision-making processes. For example, many face recognition apps have failed to recognise the faces of people of colour, and period trackers have been made with misinformation about cycle lengths. If more diversity were seen throughout the process of creating a STEM product or service, we would see a lot fewer issues and a lot better products! Now, more than ever, your voice is important in STEM because science and technology are shaping the future at a fast rate. With the boom in artificial intelligence (AI) technology and its impact on almost every industry, we can’t afford to have models being trained from an unrepresentative data set. Look at people like Katherine Johnson, who despite facing setbacks as an African American at the time, was a pivotal part of sending astronauts aboard Apollo 11 into space. Or, more recently, Dr Ronx, who is paving the way as a trans-non-binary emergency medicine doctor. Tackling stereotypes Showing up in STEM & STEAM fields is a great way to tackle stereotypes. So many underrepresented groups are usually stereotyped into different career paths that are based on old, outdated notions about what certain people should do. By showing up and talking about what you love, you show that you’re not less capable than anyone else. Shout about your achievements, no matter how big or small, no matter where you are on your career journey so that we can encourage a new idea of what STEM looks like. Conclusion If this article hasn’t already given you the confidence to explore STEM & STEAM fields and all they have to offer, there are so many other reasons why you’re important to these fields and capable of achieving your dreams. Representation from you and others helps us create a more equitable, innovative, and inclusive future. It matters because the progress of science and society depends on the contributions of all, not a select few. Written by Angel Pooler -- Scientia News wholeheartedly thanks Stemmettes for this pertinent piece on the importance of representation in STEM. We hope you enjoyed reading this International Women's Month Special piece! Check out their website , and Zine / Futures youth board (The Stemette Futures Youth Board is made up of volunteers aged 15-25 from the UK and Ireland who will ensure the voices of girls, young women and non-binary young people are heard. They will work alongside the Stemette Futures charity board to guide and lead the mission to inspire more girls, young women and non-binary young people in to STEAM). -- Related articles: Sisterhood in STEM / Women leading in biomedical engineering / African-American women in cancer research Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Vitamins 21/02/25, 12:23 Last updated: Published: 07/10/23, 12:59 Role and function in the body Vitamins are organic compounds which are not snythesised by organisms. They play a vital role in optimal health to allow for normal cell function, growth and development. There are thirteen essential vitamins: ● Vitamin A - important for eyesight and also strengthens immune systems. ● Vitamin C - important for the health of the immune system and helps produce collagen and helps with wound healing. ● Vitamin D - important for bone health and maintaining immune system functionality. ● Vitamin E - is an antioxidant that helps prevent cell damage and has a preventative role in cancer. Makes red blood cells. ● Vitamin K - allows for blood to clot and plays a role in bone health. ● Vitamin B1 (thiamine) - used to keep muscle tissue and nerves healthy. ● Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) - important for body growth and red blood production. ● Vitamin B3 (niacin/ nicotinic acid) - important for digestion and the digestive system health. ● Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid/ pantothenate)- important for producing red blood cells and maintaining a healthy digestive system. ● Vitamin B6 (pyridoxin) - helps make brain chemicals and for normal brain function. ● Vitamin B7 (biotin) - needed for metabolism. ● Vitamin B9 (folate/ folic acid) - important for brain function and mental health. ● Vitamin B12 (cobolamine) - important for the nervous system and helps in production of DNA and RNA. They are mostly obtained from the foods we eat but some vitamins like K and biotin are produced by microorganisms in the intestine commonly known as ‘gut flora’. Vitamins are needed in very small quantities. They are made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. They can also contain nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and other elements. Vitamin deficiencies Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamins in its food such as metabolic causes. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder e.g due to lifestyle choices like smoking, excess alcohol consumption or medication that interacts with vitamins. There can be times where one experiences deficiencies and thus it is important to acquire the necessary vitamins through foods, supplements or medication. Sources of vitamins There are many good food sources which provide your body with all the vitamins needed to work properly: ● Oily fish such as salmon, herring and mackerel ● Red meat ● Egg yolk ● Milk and yoghurt ● Cheese ● Nuts and seeds ● Plant-based oils such as olive and rapeseed ● Green leafy vegetables such as broccoli and spinach and a lot more…. This article does not provide any medical advice so please do seek advice from your doctor if you have any further queries. Further information can be found here . Written by Khushleen Kaur Related articles: Probiotics / Food at the molecular level / Rising food prices Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breast cancer in males 04/02/25, 15:45 Last updated: Published: 17/11/23, 16:51 An exposé to the undisclosed condition Following the breakthroughs and increasingly successful screening programmes in most recent years, breast cancer in women has become increasingly talked about. Throughout October, social media is filled with information on breast cancer in women, what to do if diagnosed, memorable fundraising events that will generate thousands of pounds, and the heartwarming stories of survivors and patients fighting against this horrible disease. In the UK, 1 in 7 females will be diagnosed with breast cancer at some point in their lifetime. If we look at other areas in the world, this statistic shifts significantly: in the USA 1 in 8 females will develop the condition, whilst in Japan, it is 1 in 38 females. Although the percentages of breast cancer incidence differ around the globe, they all underline one common characteristic: many women and their families throughout the globe will suffer because of breast cancer ( Figure 1 ). Interestingly, though, with how prevalent breast cancer is in women, breast cancer in men is hardly ever mentioned. Whilst breast cancer is much more common in women, with around 55 thousand diagnoses every year, only 400 males a are diagnosed annually, which is equivalent to 1% of breast cancer diagnoses in the UK. However, the unlikelihood of a disease does not mean that it is any less significant. Conditions like epilepsy, strangulated inguinal hernias, alpha-1 antitrypsin, and Paget’s disease are all conditions with an incidence of around 1% or less. Nevertheless, they all may severely change the lifestyle of patients and even cause death - the fact that they have a low presence makes them no less important. This makes one wonder, what causes breast cancer in men and women to differ so extensively in numbers, and why is breast cancer in men so undisclosed? To answer this question, we must first understand what breast cancer is. Cancers are cells that grow uncontrollably, often forming tumours in the tissue or organs of the body and usually caused by a mutation or environmental factors, such as carcinogens. Cancers can be classified as benign and malignant, the difference being that benign cancers will stay in the original location, whilst malignant cancers are invasive. In other words, the tumour may spread to nearby tissues and lymph nodes or metastasise, spreading to other locations in the body. Breast cancer can be divided further into several types – this is one of the reasons finding a “cure” for breast cancer is so complicated. In men, the two most common types of breast cancer are invasive ductal carcinoma, which can spread through the ducts to the body, and ductal carcinoma in situ, which arises in the ductal lining of the breast tissue. But what causes these cancers to develop in men? There are multiple risk factors to consider when it comes to breast cancer in men, one of the most common being genetic mutations. Genetic mutations are when a copy of the DNA sequence in a gene has a change, and it can cause a different function or phenotype of the gene. In breast cancer, two critical and potentially inheritable mutations are in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2, which increase the risk of breast cancer in both men and women. Furthermore, this is why taking the family history of breast cancer is essential: an individual with a positive family history for breast cancer may wish to take a genetic test to confirm whether they have the mutated genes. After all, genes are inherited. Hence, if one parent has the mutated gene, they could pass it on to their children. In addition, it is important to understand how breast cancer can only occur in breast tissue. Therefore, even if a male has the mutated gene, they could only have said cancer if there is breast tissue where the hormones oestrogen and progesterone can bind to and lead to mutation, causing the cancer to further multiply and spread – this is not always the case. Another genetic risk for breast cancer is a diagnosis of Klinefelter syndrome. This syndrome, which affects less than 1% of newborn males, involves having an extra X chromosome, leading to the body producing higher levels of oestrogen and lower levels of androgen. Androgens are a group of sex hormones, usually found at higher levels in men, one example being testosterone. Meanwhile, oestrogen appears to be another risk factor. This natural hormone has been shown to correlate with breast cancer. A study in the Nature Journal found that the inhibition of oestrogen has decreased the incidence of cancer in patients considered high-risk. But how are men exposed to the hormone? Aside from being diagnosed with Klinefelter syndrome, men can be exposed to hormone therapy treatments, which include drugs that could contain oestrogen. Likewise, another treatment that’s considered a risk factor is chest radiation therapy. Radiation is one of the known carcinogens of cancer, causing cells to mutate. Therefore, elevated levels of radiation could increase the risk for a patient. Other factors such as obesity, age and liver disease should also be carefully considered. As you can see, the list of risk factors for men is abundant, so why is it that breast cancer is still more present in women? And why is the general male public less aware of these risks, as they are for women? The answer to the first question is easy enough. Although the list of risk factors for breast cancer in men seems extensive, it is even longer for women. Furthermore, women are considered at higher risk as certain risk factors that both men and women share are more prevalent in women. For instance, oestrogen is produced in larger quantities by women. Additionally, a higher proportion of women are taking hormone replacement therapy drugs. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) drugs are usually given to post-menopausal women to supplement more hormones, such as oestrogen. In the 90s alone, one study found that 22% of post-menopausal women took HRT whilst another study found that 51% of women have discussed taking the drug with their doctors. Meanwhile, the number of men taking HRT is much smaller, and usually these have a lower quantity of oestrogen, focusing more on testosterone. Although it is important to consider that within this time, incidences of individuals taking the hormones could change as the culture, awareness and research into hormone therapy changes. The second question, on the other hand, is slightly more complicated to answer. Of course, regardless of the rarity and prevalence of a condition in the population, the aim would be to treat and cure all. However, despite the significant impact and importance the NHS has on British healthcare, its limited resources meant that the most pressing and widespread issues were given priority. For instance, concentrating resources towards the C-19 virus during the last few years. Similarly, all healthcare systems globally are under constant pressure of this public health issue, managing its resources. Nevertheless, this does not mean that treating and raising awareness towards male breast cancer is less urgent and necessary. Another issue is the misinformation towards male breast cancer. In March 2023, a study in the American Journal of Men’s Health found that 61.1% of the participants (a total of 270 women and 141 men) were unaware that men could, in theory, have breast cancer. If we think about breast cancer, it is in many incorrect ways associated with femininity, perhaps from the organ it is found it arises on and to the colour (pink) used to represent breast cancer. Therefore, it all boils down to a convenient misconception, often following illogical stereotypes, that “large, strong, macho men” would never have this “women-only condition”. But how do we diagnose men with a condition they may not even know they could have? Following the process for diagnoses, specialists may recommend men with a strong family history to do regular screenings from the age of 35. Whilst screening is found to be an effective method when diagnosing women, its success in men is limited. For a majority of men, their process for diagnosis will start by noticing symptoms. Symptoms can be as obscure as a “different feel” to the breast tissue, or something more visible like a lump or hard mass. In theory, this would encourage men to approach their GPs which can then lead to the next steps of screening. However, many go seek experts late, often when seriously ill. This can both be explained culturally (such as Hispanics) and generationally, where older generations avoid medical consultations. This is very dangerous, as men often only received an official diagnosis of breast cancer six months after noticing symptoms, allowing the cancer to significantly grow within this time. On the other hand, an early diagnosis can allow for a swifter start to treatment, greater possibilities in treatment options, and could be less brutal for the patient. Hence, a better chance of treatment success and recovery. In summary, the procedures for the treatment of breast cancer in men do exist. However, for this treatment to be effective, healthcare professionals could consider increasing the awareness of the importance of regular screenings and appointments for early treatment. Overall, breast cancer in men is indeed rare. However, one must not overlook its consequences or its significance solely due to statistics. Breast cancer in men impacts many lives of both the patient and their families. Understanding the risks and the process for diagnosis could be essential in the early treatment of male patients. However, a further understanding of the astigmatisms and culture around breast cancer could be useful when educating the public on this condition. This article used “men” and “women” when describing breast cancer in patients. However, note that many individuals may not identify within these categories but could still be diagnosed and affected by breast cancer. Written by Inês Isabel Couto André ------------------ Learn more about this disease with Against Breast Cancer Take action and donate to Breast Cancer UK , and Cancer Research UK ------------------ Related articles: New radiation therapy to treat cancer / Apocrine carcinoma (a rare form of breast cancer) Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The chronotypes 14/02/25, 13:50 Last updated: Published: 27/11/24, 11:47 The natural body clock and the involvement of genetics Feeling like heading to bed at 9 pm and waking up at the crack of dawn? These tendencies define your chronotype, backed up by changes within your body. A generally overlooked topic, chronotypes affect our everyday behaviour. Many people innately associate themselves with a certain chronotype, but what do we know about how these physiological differences are caused at a molecular level? The word ‘chronotype’ was first coined in the 1970s, combining the Greek words chrono (time) and type (kind or form). While the term is relatively modern, the concept emerged in the 18th century. Researchers in the 1960s and 1970s, like Jürgen Aschoff, explored how internal biological clocks influence our sleep-wake cycles, leading to the classification of people into morning or evening types based on their activity patterns. The first evidence of body clocks was found in plants rather than humans, thus leading to the invention of flower clocks, which were used to tell the time of the day. Before delving into the details, let us be introduced to the general categories of chronotypes, which describe a person’s inclination to wake up and sleep while also affecting productivity periods. We know of the following three categories: The morning type (also referred to as larks): they are inclined to wake up and go to bed early because they feel most alert and productive in the mornings. The evening type (also called the owls): they feel most alert and productive in the evenings and onwards, so they are inclined to wake up and go to bed later. The intermediate types (also referred to as the doves): they fall in the middle of this range. Let’s explore what we know about the genetics that prove that chronotypes are a natural phenomenon. Genetics of chronotypes The main determining factor in our chronotypes is the circadian period. This is the body’s 24 hour cycle of changes that manifest into feelings of productivity and energy or tiredness. The length of this is crucial in determining our chronotypes. More importantly, specific physiological changes that cause these effects are melatonin and core body temperature. One study suggested that the morning types might have circadian periods shorter than 24 hours, whereas evening chronotypes might have circadian periods longer than 24 hours. A major clock gene is PER, which includes a collection of genes known as PER1, PER2 and PER3, which are thought to regulate circadian period factors. Specifically, it has been observed that a delay in the expression of the PER1 gene in humans causes an increased circadian period. Possible causes for this delay may be rendered to a variation within the negative feedback loop that PER1 operates in, including hereditary differences, environmental causes, changes to hormonal signals and age. This process may describe the mechanism behind the evening chronotype. Molecular polymorphs in the PER3 gene are thought to cause shorter circadian rhythms and the manifestation of the morning types. Similarly, a polymorph in the PER3 gene can be caused by a plethora of causes, as described for PER1. These nuances cause differences in the periodic release and stop of hormones which control the circadian rhythm, such as melatonin and body temperature. This is important in its power to control our energy levels, windows of productivity, and sleep cycles. The consensus remains that chronotypes are attributable to genetic premeditation by 50%, however, it has also been observed that chronotypes are prone to change with advancing age. Increased age is associated with an inclination towards an earlier phase chronotype. Age-related variation has been observed to be higher in men. There also exists an association between geographical locations and phase preference; increasing latitude (travelling North or South) from the earth's equator is associated with later chronotypes. Of course, many variations and factors come into play to affect these findings, such as ethnic genetics, climate, work culture and even population density. The effect on core body temperature and melatonin Polymorphisms in the PER3 cause a much earlier peak in body temperature and melatonin in the morning than in the evening and intermediate types. These manifest as the need to sleep much earlier in the morning and a decreased feeling of productivity later in the day. In contrast, the evening types experience a later release of melatonin and a drop in core body temperature, causing a later onset of tiredness and lack of energy. It can then be inferred that the intermediate types are affected by the expression of these genes in a way that falls in the middle of this spectrum. Conclusion Understanding differences in circadian rhythms and sleep-wake preferences offers valuable insights into human behaviour and health. Chronotypes influence various aspects of daily life, including sleep patterns and quality, cognitive performance and susceptibility to specific health conditions, including sleep-wake conditions. An extreme deviation in circadian rhythms and sleep cycles may lead to such conditions as Advanced sleep-wake phase Disorder (ASPD) and Delayed sleep-wake phase Disorder (DSPD). Recognising these variations is also helpful in optimising work schedules and aligning to jet lags, improving mental and physical health by tailoring our biological rhythms to our environments. Many individuals opt to do a sleep study at an institution to gain insights into their circadian rhythms. A healthcare professional may also prescribe this if they suspect you have a circadian disturbance such as insomnia. The Morning-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) The MEQ is a self-reported questionnaire you may complete to gain more insight into your chronotype category. Clinical psychologist Micheal Breus created it and uses different animals to categorise the chronotypes further. The framework suggests that the Bear represents individuals whose energy patterns are entrained to the rising and the sun's setting and are the most common types in the general population. The Lions describe the early risers, and Wolves roughly equate to the evening types. Recently, a fourth chronotype has been proposed: the Dolphin, whose responses to the questionnaire suggest that they switch between modes. Whether you're a Bear, Lion, Wolf, or Dolphin, understanding your chronotype can be a game-changer in optimising your daily routine. So, what’s your chronotype—and how can you start working with your body’s natural rhythms to unlock your full potential? A sleep study ? The MEQ ? Maybe keeping a tracker. Written by B. Esfandyare REFERENCES Emens JS, Yuhas K, Rough J, Kochar N, Peters D, Lewy AJ. Phase Angle of Entrainment in Morning‐ and Evening‐Types under Naturalistic Conditions. Chronobiology International. 2009 Jan;26(3):474–93. Lee, J.H., Kim, I.S., Kim, S.J., Wang, W. and Duffy, J.F. (2011). Change in Individual Chronotype Over a Lifetime: A Retrospective Study. Sleep Medicine Research , 2(2), pp.48–53. doi: https://doi.org/10.17241/smr.2011.2.2.48 . Ujma, P.P. and Kirkegaard, E.O.W. (2021). The overlapping geography of cognitive ability and chronotype. PsyCh Journal , 10(5), pp.834–846. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.477 . Shearman LP, Jin X, Lee C, Reppert SM, Weaver DR. Targeted Disruption of the mPer3 Gene: Subtle Effects on Circadian Clock Function. Molecular and Cellular Biology. 2000 Sep 1;20(17):6269–75. Viola AU, Archer SN, James Lynette M, Groeger JA, Lo JCY, Skene DJ, et al. PER3 Polymorphism Predicts Sleep Structure and Waking Performance. Current Biology. 2007 Apr;17(7):613–8. Project Gallery

Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Silicon hydrogel contact lenses 13/12/24, 12:08 Last updated: Published: 29/04/24, 10:59 An engineering case study Introduction Contact lenses have a rich and extensive history dating back over 500 years; when, in 1508, Leonardo Di Vinci first conceived the idea. It was not until the late 19th century that the concept of contact lenses as we know them now were realised. In 1887 F.E.Muller was credited with making the first eye covering that could improve vision without causing any irritation. This eventually led to the first generation of hydrogel-based lenses as the development of the polymer, hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), allowed Rishi Agarwal to conceive the idea of disposable soft contact lenses. Silicon hydrogel contact lenses dominate the contemporary market. Their superior properties have extended wear options and have transformed the landscape of vision correction. These small but complex items continue to evolve, benefiting wearers worldwide. This evolution is such that the most recent generation of silicon hydrogel lenses have recently been released and aim to phase out all the existing products. Benefits of silicon hydrogel lenses There are many benefits to this material’s use in this application. For example, the higher oxygen permeability improves user comfort and experience through relatively increased oxygen transmissibility that the material offers. These properties are furthered by the lens’ moisture retention which allows for longer wear times without compromising on comfort or eye health. Hence, silicon hydrogel lenses aimed to eradicate the drawbacks of traditional hydrogel lenses including: low oxygen permeability, lower lens flexibility and dehydration causing discomfort and long-term issues. This groundbreaking invention has revolutionised convenience and hygiene for users. The structure of silicon hydrogel lenses Lenses are fabricated from a blend of the two materials: silicon and hydrogel. The silicon component provides high oxygen permeability, while the hydrogel component contributes to comfort and flexibility. Silicon is a synthetic polymer and is inherently oxygen-permeable; it facilitates more oxygen to reach the cornea, promoting eye health and avoiding hypoxia-related symptoms. Its polymer chains form a network, creating pathways for oxygen diffusion. Whereas hydrogel materials are hydrophilic polymers that retain water, keeping the lens moist and comfortable as it contributes to the lens’s flexibility and wettability. Both materials are combined using cross-linking techniques which stabilise the matrix to make the most of both properties and prevent dissolution. (See Figure 1 ). There are two forms of cross-linking that enable the production of silicon hydrogel lenses: chemical and physical. Chemical cross-linking involves covalent bonds between polymer chains, enhancing the lens’s mechanical properties and stability. Additionally, physical cross-links include ionic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and crystallisation. Both techniques contribute to the lens’s structure and properties and can be enhanced with polymer modifications. In fact, silicon hydrogel macromolecules have been modified to optimise properties such as: improved miscibility with hydrophilic components, clinical performance and wettability. The new generation of silicon hydrogel contact lenses Properties Studies show that wearers of silicon hydrogel lenses report higher comfort levels throughout the day and at the end of the day compared to conventional hydrogel lenses. This is attributed to the fact that they allow around 5 times more oxygen to reach the cornea. This is significant as reduced oxygen supply can lead to dryness, redness, blurred vision, discomfort, and even corneal swelling. What’s more, the most recent generation of lenses have further improved material properties, the first of which is enhanced durability and wear resistance. This is attributed to their complex and unique material composition, maintaining their shape and making them suitable for various lens designs. Additionally, they exhibit a balance between hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties which have traditionally caused an issue with surface wettability. This generation of products have overcome this through surface modifications improving comfort by way of improving wettability. Not only this, but silicon hydrogel materials attract relatively fewer protein deposits. Reduced protein buildup leads to better comfort and less frequent lens replacement. Manufacturing There are currently two key manufacturing processes that silicon hydrogel materials are made with. Most current silicon hydrogel lenses are produced using either cast moulding or lathe cutting techniques. In lathe cutting, the material is polymerised into solid rods, which are then cut into buttons for further processing in computerised lathe - creating the lenses. Furthermore, surface modifications are employed to enhance this concept. For example, plasma surface treatments enhance biocompatibility and improve surface wettability compared to earlier silicon elastomer lenses. Future innovations There are various future expansions related to this material and this application. Currently, researchers are exploring ways to create customised and personalised lenses tailored to an individual’s unique eye shape, prescription, and lifestyle. One of the ways they are aiming to do this is by using 3D printing and digital scanning to allow for precise fitting. Although this is feasible, there are some challenges relating to scalability and cost-effectiveness while ensuring quality. Moreover, another possible expansion is smart contact lenses which aim to go beyond just improving the user's vision. For example, smart lenses are currently being developed for glucose and intraocular pressure monitoring to benefit patients with diseases including diabetes and glaucoma respectively. The challenges associated with this idea are data transfer, oxygen permeability and therefore comfort. (See Figure 2 ). Conclusion In conclusion, silicon hydrogel lenses represent a remarkable fusion of material science and engineering. Their positive impact on eye health, comfort, and vision correction continues to evolve. As research progresses, we can look forward to even more innovative solutions benefiting visually-impaired individuals worldwide. Written by Roshan Gill Related articles: Semi-conductor manufacturing / Room-temperature superconductor REFERENCES Optical Society of India, Journal of Optics, Volume 53, Issue 1, Springer, 2024 February Lamb J, Bowden T. The history of contact lenses. Contact lenses. 2019 Jan 1:2-17. Ţălu Ş, Ţălu M, Giovanzana S, Shah RD. A brief history of contact lenses. Human and Veterinary Medicine. 2011 Jun 1;3(1):33-7. Brennan NA. Beyond flux: total corneal oxygen consumption as an index of corneal oxygenation during contact lens wear. Optometry and vision science. 2005 Jun 1;82(6):467-72. Dumbleton K, Woods C, Jones L, Fonn D, Sarwer DB. Patient and practitioner compliance with silicon hydrogel and daily disposable lens replacement in the United States. Eye & Contact Lens. 2009 Jul 1;35(4):164-71. Nichols JJ, Sinnott LT. Tear film, contact lens, and patient-related factors associated with contact lens–related dry eye. Investigative ophthalmology & visual science. 2006 Apr 1;47(4):1319-28. Jacinto S. Rubido, Ocular response to silicone-hydrogel contact lenses, 2004. Musgrave CS, Fang F. Contact lens materials: a materials science perspective. Materials. 2019 Jan 14;12(2):261. Shaker LM, Al-Amiery A, Takriff MS, Wan Isahak WN, Mahdi AS, Al-Azzawi WK. The future of vision: a review of electronic contact lenses technology. ACS Photonics. 2023 Jun 12;10(6):1671-86. Kim J, Cha E, Park JU. Recent advances in smart contact lenses. Advanced Materials Technologies. 2020 Jan;5(1):1900728. Project Gallery