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How physical appearance shapes judgement Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Psychology of the Halo Effect Last updated: 29/06/26, 11:09 Published: 29/06/26, 10:51 How physical appearance shapes judgement Physical attractiveness often shapes how we perceive traits like intelligence, success, and kindness. This common tendency is explained by a psychological bias known as the halo effect. The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias where a single positive trait, such as attractiveness, influences how we judge an individual’s other characteristics. This occurs unconsciously, serving as an automatic mental shortcut. Our brains process large amounts of information daily, hence they rely on shortcuts to make quick judgements, with physical attractiveness serving as one such shortcut, leading to the generalisation from one positive trait to form a broader judgement. Gulati et al. (2024) investigated the halo effect using artificial intelligence-based beauty filters. In this online study, participants rated facial images in two conditions: original and attractive after applying a filter. A 7-point Likert scale was provided for seven attributes: attractiveness, intelligence, trustworthiness, sociability, happiness, femininity and unusualness. Findings illustrated that the same individuals receive significantly higher ratings of attractiveness and other traits, like intelligence, in the attractive condition. This illustrates that people perceive attractive individuals as more sociable and trustworthy, even when there is no evidence of such traits, illustrating the halo effect in place. Similarly, findings from Lenoir & Stocks (2020) illustrated that attractive individuals are judged to behave more positively and to exhibit fewer negative behaviours. Together, these studies highlight how one characteristic can form general perceptions of personality. However, Gulati et al. (2024) also concluded that although faces with the filter received higher ratings, the strength of the link between attractiveness and trait judgements became weaker in the filter condition – attractiveness still influenced trait judgements, but had a weaker influence on participants’ judgments of personality traits. This may be because when people use beauty filters, attractiveness becomes artificial, and therefore, people place less weight on physical attractiveness when forming trait judgments. All in all, ratings increased in the filter condition, but the predictive power of attractiveness on trait judgments slightly weakened. In social settings, this becomes evident, as attractive individuals may be treated more favourably or receive greater opportunities and trust from others. As a result, this reinforces the bias over time, as others respond more positively to them, supporting the idea that they possess desirable traits. The halo effect not only shapes opinions but also influences outcomes too, as attractive people may receive more job opportunities or less harsh punishments in court, as outlined by Yang et al. (2019). The researchers concluded that attractive and trustworthy-looking defendants were judged more favourably, while unattractive or untrustworthy defendants received harsher punishments, such as longer prison sentences and greater fines. In contrast, what is less discussed is the opposite of the halo effect: the horn effect. The horn effect occurs when a single negative trait leads us to form a general negative impression of an individual. Research by Nisbett & Wilson (1977) suggests that negative first impressions can form evaluations, as global judgements influence how certain traits are perceived. This cognitive bias means that a negative trait, such as untidiness, can lead individuals to judge a person as less trustworthy or capable. All in all, both the halo and horn effects illustrate how first impressions can influence our thinking and, through a psychological lens, highlight how our judgements are not solely rational but are influenced by mental shortcuts that simplify social information. Delving into these cognitive biases can help us become aware of how we evaluate and perceive others, consider our assumptions carefully, and thus make more accurate and fair judgements. Written by Shreya Dhaliwal Related articles: The endowment and nudge effects REFERENCES Gulati, A., Martínez-Garcia, M., Fernández, D., Lozano, M. A., Lepri, B., & Oliver, N. (2024). What is beautiful is still good: The attractiveness halo effect in the era of beauty filters. Royal Society Open Science, 11 (11). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.240882 . Gupta, P. (2020, September 21). Falling in love at first sight easily? The halo and horn effect. Medium. https://parulgupta-40907.medium.com/falling-in-love-at-first-sight-easily-heres-what-you-should-know-about-halo-and-horn-effect-16c7236aeaf6 . Lasky, J. (2024). Halo Effect . EBSCO. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/psychology/halo-effect . Lenoir, K., & Stocks, E. (2019). Attractiveness norm violations and the halo effect. Undergraduate Journal of Psychology, 31 (1). Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). The halo effect: Evidence for unconscious alteration of judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35 (4), 250–256. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.35.4.250 . Yang, Q., Zhu, B., Zhang, Q., Wang, Y., Hu, R., Liu, S., & Sun, D. (2019). Effects of male defendants’ attractiveness and trustworthiness on simulated judicial decisions in two different swindles. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02160 . Project Gallery

'Manis pentadactyla' is the dominant pangolin species in China Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Pangolins: from poached to protected Last updated: 27/03/25, 11:15 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 'Manis pentadactyla' is the dominant pangolin species in China This is article no. 4 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: How Gorongosa National Park went from conflict to community . Previous article: Beavers are back in Britain Pangolins are a group of eight scaled mammal species from Asia and Africa. They are being poached mainly for their scales and meat, driving them to dangerously low numbers. Although commercial trade is banned for all species, pangolins are the most illegally trafficked animals in the world. One pangolin species has a fascinating story because of its appeal to traditional medicine and demand in a populated country. That species is the Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla , and this article will describe its threats and conservation efforts. About pangolins in China Manis pentadactyla is the dominant pangolin species in China, living south of the Yangtze River ( Figure 1 ). The Sunda pangolin Manis javanica has a tiny habitat in southwest China ( Figure 1 ). Pangolins prefer natural forests, with an ambient temperature of 18-27°C and plenty of termites and ants to eat. Both Chinese species were classified as critically endangered in 2014, though accurately estimating pangolins' distribution and population size is complex. This is because they are nocturnal, solitary, and live underground. Pangolins also make no obvious sounds, or leave no apparent traces, for scientists to detect their presence. Despite these challenges, Chinese scientists are learning more about pangolin habitat to improve conservation strategies. Threats facing Chinese pangolins Chinese pangolins are critically endangered for various human-caused reasons ( Figure 2 ). The biggest reason is poaching because pangolin meat is a local delicacy, and its scales, bones, and blood are used in traditional Chinese medicine. Pangolin scales have recently been removed from the official list of ingredients for Chinese medicine, but that has not stopped hospitals from selling them. In a recent study, only a third of Chinese hospitals selling roasted pangolin scales had the required permit. Permits are also needed to sell or manufacture patented medicines containing pangolin scales, considered the gold standard for treating many conditions. Because these medicines and pangolin meat are so revered, one hunted pangolin sells for up to 90,000 yuan (≈£9800). This has incentivised the hunting and illegal trafficking of non-native pangolin species into China - where they could outcompete, or spread diseases to native species. Thus, illicit trade for traditional medicine threatens Chinese pangolins. Habitat destruction has made Chinese pangolins more vulnerable to poaching. Natural forests are being destroyed to grow crops, grow economic trees like rubber, or build human infrastructure. Farms or rubber plantations have fewer ants and termites than natural forests, so pangolins cannot survive there. As a result, in some parts of China, the pangolin geographical range halved in 30 years. With acres of this unsuitable habitat separating fragments of forest, pangolins may struggle to find mates, and inbreeding could be an issue. Thus, habitat loss is contributing to the decline of the Chinese pangolin. Conservation Conservation measures were taken in the last few decades in response to the pangolin population decline. In China, hunting pangolins was first restricted in 1987, and they were given legal protection in 1989. The Chinese government tightened this protection in 2020 after suggestions that pangolins were an intermediate species for SARS-CoV-2 to transmit from bats to humans. In addition to national restrictions, international authorities restricted pangolin trade, and the Chinese government ran public awareness campaigns about their endangered status ( Figure 3 ). Pangolins also have 100,000 squared kilometres of protected habitat in China, though this is only 9% of what models predict as a suitable pangolin habitat. Habitat protection and trade restrictions are essential to protect pangolins because captive breeding has either failed or acted as a front for illegal trafficking. Although Chinese pangolin conservation has come far in the last 40 years, more can be done. Conclusion Humans have driven Chinese pangolins to near extinction, mainly by hunting for traditional medicine ingredients and destroying native habitats. Conservation efforts have primarily involved legal and habitat protection, but pangolins are challenging to monitor and impossible to breed in captivity. Hopefully, public awareness and a clampdown on illegal trafficking will help to save this unique mammal species. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Conservation of marine iguanas / Galapagos tortoises REFERENCES Challender, D. et al. (2013) IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Manis pentadactyla . IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . Available from: https://www.iucnredlist.org/en (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Convention On International Trade In Endangered Species Of Wild Fauna And Flora (2017) Appendices I, II and III valid from 4 October 2017 . Available from: https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/app/2017/E-Appendices-2017-10-04.pdf . Mammoser, G. (20th February 2017) Chinese Police Go After ‘Pangolin Princess’ Who Proudly Eats Endangered Species. VICE . Available from: https://www.vice.com/en/article/chinese-police-go-after-pangolin-princess-who-proudly-eats-endangered-species/ (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Wang, Y., Turvey, S.T. & Leader-Williams, N. (2023) The scale of the problem: understanding the demand for medicinal pangolin products in China. Nature Conservation . 52: 47–61. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.52.95916 (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Xinhua News Agency (2015) Opinions of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council on Accelerating the Construction of Ecological Civilization . Beijing: The Central Government of the People’s Republic of China. Available from: https://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2015-05/05/content_2857363.htm (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Chen, Y., Tang, X., Xi, F., Cen, P., Pan, Z., Ye, W. & Wu, S. (2024) Predicting the distribution and characteristics of Chinese pangolin habitat in China: Implications for conservation. Global Ecology and Conservation . 51: e02907. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989424001112 (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Wang, W., Mahmood, A., Wu, S., Li, J. & Xu, N. (2021) Observations of Chinese pangolins ( Manis pentadactyla ) in mainland China. Global Ecology and Conservation . 26: e01460. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235198942100010X (Accessed 23rd October 2024). Zhang, F., Wu, S. & Cen, P. (2022) The past, present and future of the pangolin in Mainland China. Global Ecology and Conservation . 33: e01995. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235198942100545X (Accessed 19th October 2024). Project Gallery

NMR is far more elementally diverse and is applicable to any nucleus with a spin quantum number (I) greater than 0 Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The world of inorganic NMR Last updated: 29/05/26, 17:38 Published: 04/06/26, 07:00 NMR is far more elementally diverse and is applicable to any nucleus with a spin quantum number (I) greater than 0 Introduction “It’s an organic chemist’s world, and we are just living in it” is my take on a popular idiom which has never felt more relevant than in the context of NMR spectroscopy. Since our first introductions to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), we are often led to believe that the technique is only applicable to proton (¹H) and carbon (¹³C) nuclei. However, NMR is far more elementally diverse and is applicable to any nucleus with a spin quantum number (I) greater than 0. This article will introduce fluorine (¹⁹F) and phosphorus (³¹P) NMR spectroscopy before considering the “satellite spectra” that arise from nuclei that are not 100% naturally abundant. Finally, the article will explore quadrupolar nuclei, proving that NMR extends far beyond the constraints of organic chemistry. Phosphorus and Fluorine Before discussing ¹⁹F and ³¹P NMR spectroscopy, it is worth considering how a ¹H NMR spectrum is used to characterise a molecule. First, the chemical shifts of particular protons depend on their electronic environments, with protons surrounded by more electronegative elements appearing athigher chemical shifts as they interact more strongly with the applied magnetic field. Splitting patterns are determined by the number of neighbouring nuclei and follow the 2nI + 1 rule, where n is the number of neighbouring nuclei and I is the spin quantum number of the coupled nucleus. Peak intensities are predicted by Pascal’s triangle. These rules are applicable to any spin‑½ nuclei, including ³¹P and ¹⁹F. For example, the inorganic anion [PF₆]⁻ is frequently used as a stabilising counterion in many cationic inorganic complexes and can be readily characterised using NMR. Considering the ³¹P NMR spectrum first, the phosphorus nucleus couples to six equivalent ¹⁹F nuclei and therefore produces a septet splitting pattern. Alternatively, in the ¹⁹F NMR spectrum, six equivalent fluorine nuclei couple to one ³¹P nucleus, producing a doublet. Satellite Spectra The term “satellite spectra” arises when considering coupling to spin‑active NMR nuclei that are not 100% naturally abundant. This usually occurs because multiple isotopes of an element exist, but only one is NMR‑active. For example, tungsten has five naturally occurring isotopes, but only one is NMR‑active (¹⁸³W), with a natural abundance of 14.3%. To illustrate how this affects the appearance of an NMR spectrum, consider the compound trans‑[W(PPh₃)₂(CO)₄], where the two triphenylphosphine ligands are chemically equivalent. We would initially expect a singlet in the ³¹P NMR spectrum. However, the ³¹P nuclei can also couple to the tungsten centre. Rather than observing a simple doublet, the spectrum appears as a singlet with a small superimposed doublet. This occurs because 85.7% of the molecules contain an inactive tungsten isotope, while 14.3% contain ¹⁸³W. Quadrupolar Nuclei NMR spectra can also be obtained for nuclei with spin quantum numbers where I ≥ 1, known as quadrupolar nuclei. While less commonly analysed by NMR, quadrupolar nuclei account for over 70% of the NMR‑active nuclei on the periodic table. An example of where quadrupolar NMR spectroscopy is effective is in studying the tetrafluoroaluminate ion, [AlF₄]⁻. The ¹⁹F NMR spectrum of this compound appears as a sextet with equal line intensities, as quadrupolar nuclei still obey the 2nI + 1 rule. The splitting pattern indicates that the ²⁷Al nucleus has a spin quantum number of 5/2, and the peak intensities are no longer governed by Pascal’s triangle. However, quadrupolar nuclei are not commonly studied by NMR because their non‑spherical charge distributions often lead to extensive peak broadening. [AlF₄]⁻ acts as a useful exception, where the peaks resolve because of the symmetry in a tetrahedral geometry. Quadrupolar NMR is therefore most effective in highly symmetric environments, such as octahedral (Oₕ) and tetrahedral (T_d) geometries. Conclusion In conclusion, the elemental diversity of NMR spectroscopy makes it one of the most powerful characterisation techniques available to a synthetic chemist. While this article has focused on inorganic applications of NMR, the scope of the technique is far broader. From using NMR to investigate molecular diffusion to advanced 2D NMR methods including COSY and NOESY, NMR spectroscopy dominates the analytical landscape like few others. Written by Antony Lee Related articles: Advances in mass spectrometry technology Project Gallery

Implementing established physical theories into the constructions of the future Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Building Physics Last updated: 03/04/25, 10:39 Published: 20/02/25, 08:00 Implementing established physical theories into the constructions of the future From the high rise establishments that paint the expansive London skyline to the new build properties nestled within thriving communities, buildings serve as a beacon of societal needs. The planned and precise architecture of buildings provides shelter and comfort for individuals, as well as meet business agendas to promote modern day living. Additionally, buildings serve a purpose as a form of protection where, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the design and construction of buildings is to create an environment suitable for human living: more favourable than the state of the natural environment outdoors construction and building protects us from: extremes of temperature moisture excessive noise To sustain these pivotal agendas, a comprehensive analysis of the physical factors within the environment of buildings, including temperature, light and sound are required for design and legislation for a building to function. The field of ‘Building Physics’ primarily addresses these physical factors to innovate ‘multifunctional solutions’, be more efficient, and build upon present designs, which can be adapted for future use. Moreover, the built environment is regarded as one of the biggest carbon emissions on the planet, so using building physics as an early design intervention can reduce energy consumption and minimise carbon emissions. This supports global manifestos of moving towards net zero and decreasing the likelihood of the detrimental effects caused by climate change. The main components of Building Physics Building Physics is composed of examining the functions of an interior physical environment, including air quality, thermal comfort, acoustics comfort (sound), and light : Air quality: Ventilation is needed for maintaining a safe environment and reducing the quantity of stale air - consisting of carbon dioxide and other impurities - within an interior environment. Air infiltration also contributes to a significant heat loss, where it is important to provide intentional ventilation to increase the efficiency of energy transfers within the building. Thus, good ‘airtightness’ of a building fabric, which can be considered as the building’s resistance to unintentional air infiltration or exfiltration, can enable planned airflows for ventilation. Thermal: The biggest influence within the field of Building Physics stems from an understanding of heat conductivity depending on the density and moisture content of the material, as well as heat transfers - conduction, convection, radiation and transition - to determine the suitability of materials used for construction. For example, a material such as a solid wood panel for walls and ceilings is favourable as it can be installed in layers, providing even temperature fields across the surface. It is important that a building has the ability to isolate its environment from external temperature conditions and have the correct building envelope - a barrier that separates the interior and exterior of a building. Acoustics: A regulated control of sound within buildings contributes towards maintaining habitable conditions for building users to make sure that sound is loud, undistorted, and the disturbances are reduced. Acoustics can be controlled and modified through material choices, such as installing sound-absorbing material. These materials can be adapted to reduce sound leakage, which are common in air openings, such as ventilators and doors, that are more likely to transmit sound than adjacent thicker walls. Light: Light provides an outlook of viewing an environment in an attractive manner, particularly using daylight as a primary source of enhancing the exterior of a building, whilst also functioning within a building. One strategy used to fulfil the purpose of light in buildings is designing windows for the distribution of daylight to a space. The window design has a divisive effect on the potential daylight and thermal performance of adjacent spaces, so it needs to be closely checked using the standardised methods, in order to be suitable for use. Additionally, as windows are exposed to the sky, daylighting systems can adapt windows to transmit or reflect daylight as a function of incident angle, for solar sharing, protection from glare and redirection of daylight. Overall, a key objective of sustaining a safe and eco-friendly building is to ensure that the space has proper heat and humidity aligning with a suitable degree of acoustic and visual comfort in order to sustain the health of the people using the building. Particularly within modern society, a combination of Building Physics principles and digitalised software, such as Building Information Modelling (BIM), can enhance the design process of a building to provide healthy environments for generations to come. Written by Shiksha Teeluck Related article: Titan Submersible REFERENCES Unsplash. A construction site with cranes [Internet]. [Accessed 2 January 2025]. Available from: https://unsplash.com/photos/a-construction-site-with-cranes-mOA2DAtcd1w . Katunský D, Zozulák M. Building Physics . 2012. ISBN: 978-80-553-1261-3. Partel. Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 2 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.partel.co.uk/resources/building-physics/#:~:text=According%20to%20WHO%20(World%20Health,%3A%20in%20contrast%2C%20allows%20productions . RPS Group. A day in the life of a senior building physics engineer [Internet]. [Accessed 4 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.rpsgroup.com/insights/consulting-uki/a-day-in-the-life-of-a-senior-building-physics-engineer/ . Cyprus International University. What is Building Physics and Building Physics Problems in General Terms [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: /mnt/data/What_Is_Building_Physics_and_Building_Ph.pdf. Centre for Alternative Technology. Airtightness and Ventilation [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://cat.org.uk/info-resources/free-information-service/eco-renovation/airtightness-and-ventilation/#:~:text=With%20good%20airtightness%2C%20effective%20ventilation,won't%20work%20as%20intended . KLH. Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://www.klh.at/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/klh-building-physics-en.pdf . Watson JL. Climate and Building Physics [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://calteches.library.caltech.edu/98/1/Watson.pdf . Ruck N, Aschehoug Ø, Aydinli S, Christoffersen J, Edmonds I, Jakobiak R, et al. Daylight in Buildings - A source book on daylighting systems and components . 2000 Jun. Synergy Positioning Systems. How BIM Saves Time & Money for Construction Businesses [Internet]. [Accessed 6 January 2025]. Available from: https://groupsynergy.com/synergy-positioning-news/how-bim-saves-time-money-for-construction-businesses . Project Gallery

Restoring cardiac tissue and reducing heart failure Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Why is there a need for cardiac regeneration? Last updated: 13/03/25, 11:37 Published: 06/03/25, 08:00 Restoring cardiac tissue and reducing heart failure Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a predominant cause of morbidity and mortality on a global scale. Among its various manifestations, heart failure (HF) stands out as a significant public health concern, with a prevalence exceeding 23 million individuals worldwide. Heart failure, especially after a heart attack (myocardial infarction) or ischemic heart disease, is a major challenge. The five-year survival rate is less than 50%. In these patients, functional cardiomyocytes are substantially lost (cardiomyocytes refer to cardiac muscle cells). The remaining cardiomyocytes often attempt to compensate for this loss; however, this compensatory mechanism can lead to scar tissue formation, subsequently compromising the overall functionality of the cardiac muscle. Despite numerous advancements in medical science and therapeutic interventions, restoring lost cardiomyocytes in the adult mammalian heart remains a significant obstacle due to its poor regenerative capacity. Consequently, there exists an urgent need for novel therapeutic approaches. Cardiac regeneration has emerged as a promising field of research focused on restoring cardiac tissue and reducing heart failure, offering hope for improved clinical outcomes in affected patients. Approaches for cardiac regeneration Cardiac regeneration has emerged as a pivotal area of research, and various innovative strategies, including stem cell therapies and gene therapy, are being explored. Stem cell therapies: Stem cell therapies utilise the ability of stem cells to differentiate into cardiomyocytes or release factors that promote tissue repair. Preclinical studies involving animal models and early-phase clinical trials have demonstrated that stem cell interventions can enhance cardiac function. However, significant challenges remain concerning the efficacy and safety of these therapies in human subjects, necessitating further investigation. Gene therapy: Gene therapy delivers specific genes that directly support cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival to damaged cardiac tissue. Introducing these genes can activate specific intracellular signalling pathways, resulting in the replication and maturation of cardiac muscle cells. Ultimately, this strategy aims to restore normal heart function and improve cardiac health. Benefits of cardiac regeneration Cardiac regeneration has the potential to significantly enhance survival rates and improve the quality of life for patients with heart conditions. Compared to heart transplantation, cardiac regeneration offers a less invasive alternative with fewer complications related to immune rejection and lifelong immunosuppressive therapy. Some of the potential benefits of cardiac regeneration are: Replacing the scar formation and improving heart function Reduce the dependency on medications Alternative to heart transplantation Reducing the healthcare costs Challenges to cardiac regeneration Cardiac regeneration remains a complex field marked by ethical considerations and scientific challenges that require thorough exploration. Stem cell therapy limitations include low engraftment rates, potential tumorigenesis, and difficulty effectively integrating host cardiac tissue. Additionally, immune rejection poses a substantial risk, affecting safety and efficacy. Beyond biological hurdles, the high cost of research, treatment development, and patient care presents a significant challenge to widespread adoption. Regulatory approval processes add another layer of complexity, as therapies must meet stringent safety and efficacy standards before clinical use. Furthermore, scalability remains an issue, as translating experimental techniques into large-scale, cost-effective treatments is a major obstacle in making cardiac regeneration accessible to a broader population. Moreover, it is imperative to deepen our understanding of the roles played by non-cardiomyocyte cell types such as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells in cardiac regeneration. Conclusion Cardiac regeneration is a ray of hope for heart patients, significantly enhancing their chances of survival and quality of life. Therefore, cardiac regeneration demands thorough exploration, as it has the potential to transform the treatment and management of cardiovascular disease. Written by Prabha Rana Related article: Hypertension REFERENCES Baccouche, B. M., Elde, S., Wang, H., & Woo, Y. J. (2024). Structural, angiogenic, and immune responses influencing myocardial regeneration: a glimpse into the crucible. Npj Regenerative Medicine, 9(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41536-024-00357-z Pezhouman, A., Nguyen, N. B., Kay, M., Kanjilal, B., Noshadi, I., & Ardehali, R. (2023). Cardiac regeneration - Past advancements, current challenges, and future directions. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology, 182, 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yjmcc.2023.07.009 Sacco, A. M., Castaldo, C., di Meglio, F. di, Nurzynska, D., Palermi, S., Spera, R., Gnasso, R., Zinno, G., Romano, V., & Belviso, I. (2023). The Long and Winding Road to Cardiac Regeneration. Applied Sciences, 13(16), 9432. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13169432 van der Pol, A., & Bouten, C. V. C. (2021). A Brief History in Cardiac Regeneration, and How the Extra Cellular Matrix May Turn the Tide. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2021.682342 Wang, J., An, M., Haubner, B. J., & Penninger, J. M. (2023). Cardiac regeneration: Options for repairing the injured heart. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2022.981982 Project Gallery

Many commercial activities are negative, particularly the production and marketing of ultra-processed foods (UPFs), which have contributed to a global obesity crisis. Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Dessert deception: how junk food advertising affects public health Last updated: 29/05/26, 17:22 Published: 04/06/26, 07:00 Many commercial activities are negative, particularly the production and marketing of ultra-processed foods (UPFs), which have contributed to a global obesity crisis. Introduction Chocolate. Crisps. Popcorn. If you're living in the UK, these are things you will no longer see on TV before 9 pm and in paid-for online advertising. This is because the UK has recently implemented a landmark ban on junk food advertisements, with the aim of making unhealthy food less desirable and therefore less consumed by the public. However, research from the World Health Organisation (WHO) suggests that marketing restrictions are only one small part of a strategy to combat the global rise in obesity. Unfortunately, eating habits are no longer just a matter of individual choice: they are increasingly being affected by commercial determinants of health. Researchers have defined them as "strategies and approaches used by the private sector to promote products and choices that are detrimental to health". While some commercial activities can be positive, many are negative, particularly the production and marketing of ultra-processed foods (UPFs), which have contributed to an obesity crisis globally. Frontier Economics calculated the cost of obesity to be approximately £74 billion a year for the UK in an analysis for the Tony Blair Institute, of which the cost to the NHS is more than £11 billion. The science of "engineered" cravings A review from Harvard, Michigan, and Duke University suggests that many UPFs share more characteristics with tobacco cigarettes than with natural foods like fruit or vegetables. The research identified some key strategies used by both the food and tobacco industries to drive addiction and compulsive consumption. They are "dose optimisation", "speed of delivery", "hedonic engineering" and "deceptive reformulation", seen in Table 1 . Table 1 - A comparison of key strategies used by both the food and tobacco industries to drive addiction and compulsive consumption. Source: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-0009.70066 Strategy UPFs (ultra-processed foods) Cigarettes Dose optimisation UPFs are calibrated to hit a "hedonic sweet spot" of refined carbohydrates and added fats that maximise reward without causing aversion. Nicotine dose is standardised in cigarettes that maximise reward without causing aversion. Speed of delivery Processing techniques break down the food matrix, stripping away fibre and protein so that carbohydrates, sugar and added fats are instantly absorbed into the bloodstream. Additives are used to further increase the absorption speed and efficiency. This rapid delivery triggers a sharper dopamine surge in the brain's reward pathways, increasing the potential for addiction. Industrial processing breaks down the tobacco plant matrix, making it easy to rapidly absorb nicotine through inhalation, with additives added to increase nicotine's speed of delivery. Hedonic engineering Companies add artificial flavours, sweeteners, colourants and more to create "flavour bursts" that fade quickly, intentionally added to encourage repeated intake and amplify appeal. Cigarettes contain flavourings, menthol, and sweeteners for the same reason. Deceptive reformulation UPFs are marketed using "health-washing" claims and terms like "lighter", "low-fat", "sugar-free" and "vitamin-enhanced" to deflect regulation while maintaining addictive properties. Companies market "light" cigarettes and filters as being safer, even though they are still addictive. The UK's landmark 2026 junk food advertising ban On 5 January 2026, the UK implemented a nationwide ban on television and online advertisements for products high in fat, salt, and sugar (HFSS). This ban prohibits junk food ads on TV before the 9 pm watershed and imposes a total ban on paid-for online advertising. The legislation targets the most vulnerable demographic: children, whose developing dietary habits are easily manipulated by high-energy and colourful branding. The UK government expects this action to remove up to 7.2 billion calories from UK children's diets every year, reduce the number of children living with obesity by 20,000 and deliver approximately £2 billion in health benefits over time. The ban is supported by evidence from the National Child Measurement Programme's annual report for the academic year 2024/2025 , which shows that at the start of primary school, approximately 10% of children in England are already living with obesity. This figure rises to more than 22% by the time children leave primary school, as seen in Figure 1 . However, while public health experts have said that the ban is "long overdue", they warn that industry loopholes are undermining its effectiveness. In the UK, while specific products like pizzas or burgers are banned, the "brand-only" exemption allows companies to advertise their brand (e.g., the McDonald's "Golden Arches") as long as specific HFSS products aren't shown. This has led to a shift in marketing strategy: research from the Food Foundation shows that food companies increased their outdoor advertising spend, including billboards and public transport, by 28% between 2021 and 2024. Examples can be seen in Figure 2a and Figure 2b . McDonald's alone has spent £86 million on outdoor ads in 2024, up 71% since 2021, according to the Health Foundation . The WHO's perspective on why pricing matters While the UK focuses on advertising, the WHO warns that harmful products are becoming cheaper globally. Recent WHO reports reveal that weak tax systems are failing to keep pace with inflation and income growth, making sugary drinks and alcohol more affordable than they were years ago. Due to this, the WHO advocates for health taxes as one of the strongest tools for promoting well-being. Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, WHO Director-General, explains that "health taxes are one of the strongest tools we have for promoting health and preventing disease". In the UK, the 2018 Soft Drinks Industry Levy is cited as a major success; it generated £338 million in revenue in 2024 and has been associated with lower obesity rates in girls, particularly in deprived areas. However, the WHO notes that globally, sugary drink taxes often account for only 2% of the retail price, which is far too low to be effective compared to the 50-60% tax rates seen on tobacco. To address this, the WHO launched the "3 by 35" initiative , aiming to significantly increase the real prices of tobacco, alcohol, and sugary drinks by at least 50% by 2035 through tax increases. The economic win Contrary to industry arguments that these restrictions harm the economy, new research from the Sheffield Addictions Research Group suggests that reducing consumption of unhealthy products is actually a net economic gain for the UK. Because money spent on local services stays in the UK and money spent on global junk food brands often goes to the companies, reallocating just 10% of spending from confectionery to other domestic sectors could boost the UK economy by £389 million and create nearly 7,000 new jobs. Conclusion The UK's 2026 ban on junk food adverts is a significant step towards holding the food industry accountable. However, this must be seen as the first of many steps, rather than a final solution. While the ban restricts TV and online ads, industry giants are already exploiting loopholes to maintain their influence over people's food preferences, especially children's. To achieve its ambition of raising the healthiest generation of children ever, the UK must acknowledge that many UPFs are not just poor dietary choices but industrially engineered substances designed to influence human biology and drive compulsive consumption, much like tobacco. A truly effective strategy requires a whole systems approach that moves beyond individual responsibility to food industry accountability. This includes closing loopholes in outdoor advertising and sports sponsorship, and implementing health taxes aligned with the WHO's "3 by 35" initiative that rise with inflation to ensure harmful products do not become more affordable over time. Instead of harming finances, this shift is actually a significant economic win. This means transitioning from a model of "treating sickness" to one of active prevention is not just a public health imperative; it is also a strategic investment in the country's long-term economic and social prosperity. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Rising food prices / Food at the molecular level / Childhood obesity Project Gallery

This requires a strategy accounting for different factors, as well as other wider determinants of health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Addressing Health Inequalities Last updated: 03/05/26, 17:09 Published: 02/04/26, 07:00 This requires a strategy accounting for different factors, as well as other wider determinants of health This is the fourth and final article in a series on health inequalities. Previous article: Ethnic health equalities. Welcome to the final article in a series of articles about health inequalities. This article will look more in detail at how to address health inequalities. Introduction Health inequalities are systematic and avoidable differences in health outcomes. They carry heavy human and economic costs, including over £31bn in lost productivity annually. Previous articles in this series explored how factors like geography, income, and ethnicity drive these disparities. However, addressing healthcare inequalities requires a strategy accounting for these factors, as well as other wider determinants of health. The impact of the environment Scientists have published research which found that environmental factors, including smoking, physical activity, and socioeconomic status, have a greater impact on a person’s health and premature death compared to their genes. They analysed data from the UK Biobank, a dataset of biological, health and lifestyle information. Their analysis showed that environmental exposure explains 17% of the variation in risk of death, while genetic predisposition explains less than 2%. Of the 25 factors that were analysed, smoking was linked to 21 diseases, followed by 19 diseases for socioeconomic factors like household income, home ownership, and employment status. While genetics still dominates for specific conditions like dementia and breast cancer, these findings emphasise that the vast majority of health outcomes are determined by our environment rather than our biology. Therefore, to address health inequalities, targeted strategies and collaborative methods like co-design need to be used to ensure interventions meet the genuine needs of the most vulnerable communities. Core20PLUS5 The NHS’s Core20PLUS5 is one of these targeted strategies, defining a target population (the “Core20PLUS”) and identifying 5 areas of healthcare that require improvement. For both groups (adults, children and young people), the target population is the same: CORE20 refers to the most deprived 20% of the population identified by the national Index of Multiple Deprivation, while the PLUS population includes those who experience health inequalities the most, such as ethnic minority groups, individuals with a learning disability, autistic individuals, and individuals with multiple long-term health conditions. The differences between the strategy for adults and that for children and young people are in the 5 areas of healthcare requiring improvement. As seen in Figure 1 , for adults, the 5 areas are continuity and improvement of maternity care (specifically for women from Black, Asian and ethnic minority groups and from the most deprived groups), improved services for individuals with severe mental illness, improved services for those with chronic respiratory disease, early cancer diagnosis, and improved management of hypertension. Smoking cessation is another area of focus that covers all the 5 priorities. For children and young people, the 5 areas of healthcare improvement are specific to this population: asthma care, diabetes care, epilepsy care, oral health, and mental health, as seen in Figure 2 . Co-design for addressing health inequalities Another method to address health inequalities is through co-design, which is a participatory methodology where stakeholders, including service users (e.g., patients, their carers, etc) and providers (healthcare professionals and other staff), collaborate to jointly create and refine services, products, or solutions. A diagram of three key factors needed in co-design can be seen in Figure 3 . This joint approach helps to ensure that interventions align with the genuine needs and preferences of the people who will be using that service, and the findings that providers see coming up frequently from comments by service users. Co-design can be used to address health inequalities by co-producing strategies with people from those communities and backgrounds. For example, individuals from ethnic minority groups can participate, so researchers can genuinely understand and try to address racism's impact on health. This is supported by research published in the BMJ , where co-design with service users and providers from ethnic minority groups found that more culturally appropriate mental healthcare was needed, and that there needed to be more open discussions about the impacts of ethnicity, culture and racism in mental health. In the context of Figure 3 , this study involved “committed” ethnic minority groups with the “capability” of sharing their lived experience with researchers. This shows how co-design can be used as a tool that allows others to share their experiences for the benefit of themselves and others. Conclusion There needs to be a cross-government strategy that aligns current policy, funding, and practice around health equity. Because these inequalities are systematic and avoidable failures, they require a holistic approach that moves beyond clinical care to address the PLUS populations who experience the greatest disadvantage. Trust in the healthcare system has been eroded among ethnic minority groups due to repeated negative experiences, cultural insensitivity, and discriminatory treatment. To rebuild it, lived experiences need to be accounted for, and solutions need to be co-designed. Furthermore, determinants of good health, like stable housing, fair pay, and high-quality education, must be provided to the people most affected by health inequalities. These inequalities must be addressed to ensure everyone has the ability and opportunity to have a long and healthy life. Written by Naoshin Haque Related article: Reflection on global health injustices Project Gallery

Knowing which species menstruate lets us pick suitable animal models Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Do other animals get periods? Last updated: 29/03/26, 15:48 Published: 26/06/25, 07:00 Knowing which species menstruate lets us pick suitable animal models Periods, formally called menstruation, happen to female mammals every menstrual cycle when an egg cell is not fertilised. Levels of the progesterone hormone decrease, causing the lining of the uterus to self-destruct and shed. This lining is called the endometrium and is flushed out of the body with blood during menstruation. Some primates, bats, the spiny mouse, and elephant shrews get periods ( Figure 1 ). Since these groups are distantly related, menstruation likely evolved multiple times independently. Knowing which species menstruate lets us pick animal models which best reflect the human female reproductive system. Why do we get periods? Despite being painful and inconvenient, menstruation must have some benefit; otherwise, natural selection would not favour it on multiple separate occasions. Hypotheses put forward to explain menstruation include clearing the uterus of pathogens and saving energy compared to maintaining an endometrium all the time. A 2012 paper argues that neither of these hypotheses are true and that menstruation is an unfortunate byproduct of the way pregnancy occurs in certain animals. A more recent article expands on this idea; menstruation was not selected for in isolation, rather it evolved as one small part of a complex reproductive system. In non-menstruating animals, an embryo induces morphological and biological changes in the uterus, so those changes do not happen if they are not pregnant. The uterus of a menstruating animal undergoes regular changes even without an embryo, and one of those changes is shedding the endometrium. However, there is no consensus on the benefits of menstruation. Non-human primates Old World monkeys, apes, and humans menstruate conspicuously. This could be because their endometria have spiral arteries, which dilate and weaken in response to hormones. Eventually, the weakened arteries break and release blood, which carries dead and detached endometrial tissue out of the body. While chimpanzee menstruation is visible to the naked eye, menstrual blood in orangutans and gorillas is detected with a chemical urine strip. Gorillas bleed for 3 days, while orangutans bleed for 1-4 days. Humans have the most obvious, and possibly the most prolonged, menstruation out of the Old World primates. (Aren’t we unlucky?). On the other hand, the very few New World monkey species which menstruate need a microscope to detect it. Pedro Mayor and colleagues sampled the endometria of various New World monkeys and viewed those samples under a microscope. They found that monkeys from the Aotus nancymaae and Sapajus macrocephalus species had weakened endometria with dilated blood vessels and blood clots ( Figure 2 ). Combined with other context clues from those endometrium samples, they concluded that those monkeys must be menstruating. Bats Microscopy also identified menstruation in some bat species. In a 2011 study, uterus sections from Carollia perspicillata bats showed the endometrium getting thinner over a few days with associated bleeding. Some sections had endometrial debris in the lumen of the uterus – but unlike in Old World primates and humans, this debris was reabsorbed by the body rather than released. Menstruating Molossus ater bats had blood and endometrial cells in their cervix under a microscope, while one individual was visibly bleeding in its vagina. In contrast, a colony of female Rousettus leschenaulti bats all had visible vaginal bleeding on the same day. On that day, two-thirds of their endometria were shed, and they had low progesterone levels – meaning those bats were menstruating. Bat menstruation differs from primates in at least two ways. Firstly, menstruation happens simultaneously with ovary development in Carollia perspicillata and before ovary development in primates. Secondly, some bat species only menstruate after an interrupted mating attempt – which scientists call coitus , and the public would call “pulling out”. Perhaps menstruation gives these bats a second chance at successful mating in that breeding season. Conclusion We rarely see other animals on their period because if the species does menstruate, they do not bleed as much as humans do. Evidence of menstruation in New World monkeys and bats usually came from microscopy, where the endometrium was seen to detach, and blood was seen in the uterine lumen. These monkeys and bats could be used as rudimentary animal models to study what happens in humans during a period. Written by Simran Patel Related article: Monkey see, monkey clone REFERENCES Catalini L, Fedder J. Characteristics of the endometrium in menstruating species: lessons learned from the animal kingdom. Biology of Reproduction [Internet]. 2020 May 26 [cited 2025 Jan 8];102(6):1160–9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/biolre/ioaa029 Mayor P, Pereira W, Nacher V, Navarro M, Monteiro FOB, El Bizri HR, et al. Menstrual cycle in four New World primates: Poeppig’s woolly monkey (Lagothrix poeppigii), red uakari (Cacajao calvus), large-headed capuchin (Sapajus macrocephalus) and nocturnal monkey (Aotus nancymaae). Theriogenology [Internet]. 2019 Jan 1 [cited 2025 Jan 7];123:11–21. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093691X18302796 Rasweiler IV JJ, Badwaik NK, Mechineni KV. Ovulation, Fertilization, and Early Embryonic Development in the Menstruating Fruit Bat, Carollia perspicillata. The Anatomical Record [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2025 Jan 8];294(3):506–19. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ar.21304 Graham C. Reproductive Biology of the Great Apes: Comparative and Biomedical Perspectives. Elsevier; 2012. 456 p. Rasweiler IV JJ. Spontaneous decidual reactions and menstruation in the black mastiff bat, Molossus ater. American Journal of Anatomy [Internet]. 1991 [cited 2025 Jan 8];191(1):1–22. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/aja.1001910102 Martin RD. The evolution of human reproduction: A primatological perspective. American Journal of Physical Anthropology [Internet]. 2007 [cited 2025 Jan 8];134(S45):59–84. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.20734 Emera D, Romero R, Wagner G. The evolution of menstruation: A new model for genetic assimilation. BioEssays [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2025 Jan 8];34(1):26–35. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.201100099 Etxeberria, A. and Rodriguez-Muguruza, A. (2025) Reframing the significance of menstruation: evolutionary insights from an organismal-relational perspective. HPLS , 48(1), 2. Zhang X, Zhu C, Lin H, Yang Q, Ou Q, Li Y, et al. Wild Fulvous Fruit Bats (Rousettus leschenaulti) Exhibit Human-Like Menstrual Cycle1. Biology of Reproduction [Internet]. 2007 Aug 1 [cited 2025 Jan 8];77(2):358–64. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.106.058958 Project Gallery

Research confirms anxiety disorders do have a genetic side Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Does anxiety run in families? Here's what genetics tells us Last updated: 10/07/25, 18:26 Published: 19/06/25, 07:00 Research confirms anxiety disorders do have a genetic side Have you ever noticed anxiety can pop up in several members of the same family? Maybe your sister worries constantly, or your brother gets nervous around people. It might feel like anxiety is passed down through generations. But is that really how it works, or is it just a coincidence? Here's what science has to say. Your DNA can affect anxiety Research confirms anxiety disorders do have a genetic side. That means you're more likely to have anxiety if someone in your family, like your mum, dad, sibling, or even a grandparent, has it too. But this doesn't mean anxiety is certain. Instead, genes increase your chances, accounting for about 30% to 40% of your risk. Scientists work this out by comparing identical and fraternal twins and by following anxiety diagnoses across generations; those studies repeatedly find that roughly one-third to two-fifths of a person’s risk is genetic. So, if genetics only make up part of the picture, what's the rest? That's where your environment steps in. Your life experiences matter a lot. Things like your relationships, stressful situations, and even your physical health can tip the scales one way or another. Genes set the stage, but they don't control the outcome. Think of your genes as nudging you towards anxiety rather than pushing you into it completely. The rest depends on what happens to you. How genes shape your brain Scientists have pinpointed several genes linked to anxiety. One of these genes affects serotonin, a brain chemical that helps regulate your mood and manage stress. When serotonin works well, you feel calm and can handle stressful events better. But if your genes make serotonin less effective, stress hits you harder. This can make anxiety more likely during tough times, even when others around you seem okay. There's another important point: your brain structure. Genes influence parts of your brain, especially the amygdala. Think of the amygdala as your internal alarm system. It warns you when something feels dangerous. In people with certain genes, the amygdala is extra sensitive. That means their "alarm" goes off more easily, causing anxiety even when there's no real danger present. However, not everyone with these genetic variations experiences anxiety. Your brain adapts throughout life, changing how genes affect you. This ongoing flexibility is called neuroplasticity: experience can strengthen or weaken neural circuits and can even add or remove chemical tags, such as DNA methylation, that switch genes on or off, reshaping how your stress system responds. Anxiety isn't just genetic; here's why It's tempting to blame your genes entirely if anxiety runs in your family. But life is more complicated. Even if you inherit genes that make anxiety more likely, the disorder usually develops when certain environmental conditions come into play. Stressful life events like losing a loved one, ongoing conflict at home, bullying, or trauma can trigger anxiety symptoms. Someone might have anxiety-related genes but never experience anxiety if their life stays relatively stress-free. On the other hand, someone without these genes can still develop anxiety if they experience severe stress or trauma. Lifestyle choices also make a big difference. Regular exercise, healthy eating, good sleep, and support from friends and family can protect against anxiety. Studies show these lifestyle habits are powerful, even if your genes are pushing in the opposite direction. Can you change your genetic destiny? Understanding that anxiety has a genetic basis can help. It means anxiety isn't just a character flaw or personal weakness. It's something partly built into your biology, something real and valid. Realising this can reduce shame and make people more willing to seek help. And here's another benefit: knowing your family history allows you to spot anxiety sooner. If you understand that anxiety might run in your family, you can pay attention to early signs, like trouble sleeping, excessive worry, or panic in social settings. Catching anxiety early means getting support earlier, making treatments like therapy or lifestyle changes more effective. Anxiety might run in your family, but you get to decide how far it goes. Written by Rand Alanazi Related articles: Depression / South Asian mental health / Physical and mental health / Does insomnia run in families? REFERENCES National Institute of Mental Health. Anxiety disorders [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Mental Health; 2024 [cited 2025 May 29]. Available from: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders Mayo Clinic. Anxiety disorders [Internet]. Rochester (MN): Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research; 2018 [cited 2025 May 29]. Available from: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anxiety/symptoms-causes/syc-20350961 Leyfer O, Woodruff-Borden J, Mervis CB. Anxiety disorders in children with Williams syndrome, their mothers, and their siblings: implications for the aetiology of anxiety disorders. J Neurodev Disord . 2009 Feb 13;1(1):4-14. Martin EI, Ressler KJ, Binder EB, Nemeroff CB. The neurobiology of anxiety disorders: brain imaging, genetics, and psychoneuroendocrinology. Psychiatr Clin North Am [Internet]. 2009 Sep;32(3):549-75. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3684250/ McEwen BS, Eiland L, Hunter RG, Miller MM. Stress and anxiety: structural plasticity and epigenetic regulation as a consequence of stress. Neuropharmacology . 2012 Jan;62(1):3-12. Xie S, Zhang X, Cheng W, Yang Z. Adolescent anxiety disorders and the developing brain: comparing neuroimaging findings in adolescents and adults. Gen Psychiatry [Internet]. 2021 Aug 4;34(4):e100542. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8340272/ Zhang K, Ibrahim GM, Venetucci Gouveia F. Molecular pathways, neural circuits and emerging therapies for self-injurious behaviour. Int J Mol Sci [Internet]. 2025 Feb 24;26(5):1938. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/5/1938 Chaves T, Fazekas CL, Horváth K, Correia P, Szabó A, Török B, et al. Stress adaptation and the brainstem with focus on corticotropin-releasing hormone. Int J Mol Sci [Internet]. 2021 Jan 1;22(16):9090. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/22/16/9090 Project Gallery

Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The secret to disarming plant pathogens revealed Last updated: 22/09/25, 10:14 Published: 27/03/25, 08:00 Channel-blocking nanoparticles as a potential solution to plant diseases Unravelling the role of bacterial proteins in plant diseases! Disarming plant diseases one protein at a time! Scientists may have found a means to neutralise them, saving farmers $220 billion in yearly crop losses. The impact of plant diseases on global food production Bacteria have long been known to wreak havoc on crops, threatening our food supply and causing substantial economic losses. For over two decades, biologist Sheng-Yang He and his dedicated team have been delving into the mysterious world of bacterial proteins, seeking to unravel their role in plant diseases that plague countless crops worldwide. Finally, a breakthrough has been achieved after years of tireless research and collaboration. In a groundbreaking study published in the esteemed journal Nature, he and his colleagues have uncovered the mechanisms by which these proteins induce disease in plants and devised a method to neutralise their harmful effects. Understanding the mechanism of harmful proteins Their investigation focused on a group of injected proteins called AvrE/DspE, responsible for causing diseases ranging from brown spots in beans to fire blight in fruit trees. Despite their significance, the exact workings of these proteins have long remained elusive. The researchers discovered that these proteins adopt a unique 3D structure resembling a tiny mushroom with a cylindrical stem through cutting-edge advancements in artificial intelligence and innovative experimental techniques. Intriguingly, this structure resembled a straw, leading the team to hypothesise that the proteins create channels in plant cells, enabling the bacteria to extract water from the host during infection. Further investigation into the 3D model of the fire blight protein revealed that its hollow inner core contains many proteins from the AvrE/DspE family. These proteins were found to suppress the plant's immune system and induce dark water-soaked spots on leaves, the telltale signs of infection. However, armed with this newfound knowledge, the researchers sought to develop a strategy to disarm these proteins and halt their destructive effects. They turned to poly(amidoamine) dendrimers (PAMAM), tiny spherical nanoparticles with precise diameters that can be tailored in the lab. By experimenting with different sizes, they identified a nanoparticle that effectively blocked the water channels formed by the bacterial proteins. Application of nanoparticles in blocking water channels In a remarkable series of experiments, the researchers treated frog eggs engineered to produce the water channel protein with these channel-blocking nanoparticles. The results were astounding—the eggs no longer swelled with water and remained unaffected. Similarly, infected Arabidopsis plants treated with the nanoparticles significantly reduced pathogen concentrations, effectively preventing disease development. This breakthrough discovery offers a glimmer of hope in the battle against plant diseases, which cause immense losses in global food production. Plants are responsible for 80% of the world's food supply, and protecting them from pathogens and pests is crucial for ensuring food security. The team's groundbreaking research on plant pathogens and their harmful proteins opens up new possibilities for combating various plant diseases. The implications of their findings extend far beyond a single crop or disease, offering novel approaches to address a wide range of plant diseases. By understanding the mechanism by which bacterial proteins, such as AvrE and DspE, cause diseases in plants, researchers can now explore strategies to disarm these proteins and prevent their harmful effects. The team discovered that these proteins act as water channels, allowing bacteria to invade plant cells and create a saturated environment that promotes their growth. This insight led to the development of channel-blocking nanoparticles, effectively preventing bacteria from infecting plants and causing disease symptoms. Using precise nanoparticles, such as PAMAM dendrimers, to block plant pathogens' water channels represents a promising avenue for crop protection. Figure 1: this figure shows that PAMAM are very branched polymers that are very small, have a low polydispersity index, and have a lot of active amine functional groups. They have multiple modifiable surface functionalities, facilitating the conjugation of ligands for cancer targeting, imaging, and therapy. PAMAM dendrimers also have solubilisation, high drug encapsulation, and passive targeting ability, contributing to their therapeutic success. Cancer researchers are excited about their potential as drug carriers and non-viral gene vectors, with a focus on diagnostic imaging applications. These nanoparticles can be tailored to specific diameters, allowing for targeted disruption of the bacterial proteins' channels. The nanoparticles effectively render the bacteria harmless by interfering with the proteins' ability to create a moist environment within plant cells. This innovative approach has shown success in combating diseases caused by pathogens like Pseudomonas syringae and Erwinia amylovora . Implications for global food production and food security The potential impact of this research on global food production is immense. Plant diseases result in significant crop losses, amounting to over 10% of global food production annually. This translates to a staggering $220 billion economic loss worldwide. Developing strategies to disarm harmful proteins and protect crops from diseases can mitigate these losses and enhance food security. Furthermore, the team's findings highlight the critical role of plant biology research in addressing global challenges. Plants provide 80% of our food, making their health and protection crucial for sustaining our growing population. By understanding how pathogens infect plants and developing innovative solutions, we can safeguard our food supply and reduce the economic impact of crop diseases. Experimental results and a promising outlook The researchers aim to further investigate the interaction between channel-blocking nanoparticles and bacterial proteins. By visualising the structures and mechanisms involved, they hope to refine their designs and develop even more effective strategies for crop protection. Additionally, artificial intelligence, such as the AlphaFold2 programme, has proven instrumental in predicting the 3D structures of complex proteins. Continued advancements in AI technology will undoubtedly contribute to further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases. By unravelling the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, we can protect global food production and enhance food security. The implications of this research extend beyond a single crop or disease, paving the way for novel approaches to combat a wide range of plant diseases and safeguard our agricultural systems. Conclusion The groundbreaking research conducted by biologist Sheng-Yang He and his team offer hope in the fight against plant diseases. By revealing the mechanisms by which harmful proteins cause diseases in plants and developing innovative strategies to disarm them, they have paved the way for novel approaches to combat various plant diseases. This enhances food security and protects global food production, reducing economic losses and ensuring a sustainable future. With continued advancements in artificial intelligence and the development of precise nanoparticles, the possibilities for further breakthroughs in understanding and combating plant diseases are endless. By safeguarding our agricultural systems, we can secure the health of our crops and, ultimately, the well-being of our growing population. The implications of this research extend far beyond agriculture, offering new avenues for addressing global challenges and paving the way for a brighter and more resilient future. Figure 2: this figure shows a working model for the molecular actions of AvrE-family effectors in plants. AvrE-family effectors are water- and solute-permeable channels that change the osmotic and water potential and make an apoplast that is rich in water and nutrients for bacteria to grow in plant tissues that are infected. They can also engage host proteins to modulate AvrE-family channel properties or optimise pathogenic outcomes. Written by Sara Maria Majernikova Related articles: Digital innovation in rural farming / Nanomedicine / Mechanisms of pathogen evasion / Nanocarriers REFERENCE Kinya Nomura, Felipe Andreazza, Jie Cheng, Ke Dong, Pei Zhou, Sheng Yang He. Bacterial pathogens deliver water- and solute-permeable channels to plant cells. Nature , 2023; DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06531-5 Project Gallery