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Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and the other sciences. Log In Welcome to Scientia News DELIVERING INFORMATIVE CONTENT Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and other sciences. We hope this platform helps you discover something that inspires your curiosity, and encourages you to learn more about important topics in STEM. Meet the Official Team NAVIGATE AND CLICK THE PHOTOS BELOW TO LEARN MORE ABOUT US! To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. Latest Articles neuroscience Does being bilingual make you smarter? View More ecology Meet the microbes that feed phosphorus to plants View More biology Maveerar Naal: health, trauma, and resilience amid decades of war View More physics Creatio ex Nihilo: a Christian creation doctrine including physics View More CONTACT CONTACT US Scientia News welcomes anyone who wants to share their ideas and write for our platform. If you are interested in realising your writing potential with us AND live in the UK; and/ or would like to give feedback: Email us at scientianewsorg@gmail.com or fill in our GET IN TOUCH form below and we'll be in contact... Follow us on our socials for the latest updates. Comment, like and share! Join our mailing list below for latest site content. You can also sign up to become a site member . SUBSCRIPTION Join our mailing list to receive alerts for new articles and other site content. Be sure to check your spam/ junk folders in case emails are sent there. Email Subscribe GET IN TOUCH First Name Last Name Email Message Send Thanks for submitting!

Pathology and emerging therapeutics Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Bone cancer 09/07/25, 13:27 Last updated: Published: 12/10/23, 10:38 Pathology and emerging therapeutics Introduction: what is bone cancer? Primary bone cancer can originate in any b one. However, most cases develop in the long bones of the legs or upper arms. Each year, approximately 550 new cases are diagnosed in the United Kingdom. Primary bone cancer is distinct from secondary bone cancer, which occurs when cancer spreads to the bones from another region of the body. The focus of this article is on primary bone cancer. There are several types of bone cancer: osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, and chondrosarcoma. Osteosarcoma originates in the osteoblasts that form bone. It is most common in children and teens, with the majority of cases occurring between the ages of 10 and 30. Ewing (pronounced as YOO-ing) sarcoma develops in bones or the soft tissues around the bones. Like osteosarcoma, this cancer type is more common in children and teenagers. Chondrosarcoma occurs in the chondrocytes that form the cartilage. Chondrosarcoma is most common in adults between the ages of 30 and 70 and is rare in the under-21 age group. Causes of bone cancer include genetic factors such as inherited mutations and syndromes, and environmental factors such as previous radiation exposure. Treatment will often depend on the type of bone cancer, as the specific pathogenesis of each case is unknown. What is the standard treatment for bone cancer? Most patients are treated with a combination of surgical excision, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Surgical excision is employed to remove the cancerous bone. Typically, it is possible to repair or replace the bone, although amputation is sometimes required. Chemotherapy involves using powerful chemicals to kill rapidly growing cells in the body. It is widely used for osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma but less commonly used for chondrosarcomas. Radiation therapy (also termed radiotherapy) uses high doses of radiation to damage the DNA of cancer cells, leading to the killing of cancer cells or slowed growth. Six out of every ten individuals with bone cancer will survive for at least five years after their diagnosis, and many of these will be completely cured. However, these treatments have limitations in terms of effectiveness and side effects. The limitation of surgical excision is the inability to eradicate microscopic cancer cells around the edges of the tumour. Additionally, the patient must be able to withstand the surgery and anaesthesia. Chemotherapy can harm the bone marrow, which produces new blood cells, leading to low blood cell counts and an increased risk of infection due to a shortage of white blood cells. Moreover, radiation therapy uses high doses of radiation, resulting in the damage of nearby healthy tissues such as nerves and blood vessels. Taken together, this underscores the need for a therapeutic approach that is non-invasive, bone cancer-specific, and with limited side effects. miR-140 and tRF-GlyTCC Dr Darrell Green and colleagues investigated the role of small RNAs (sRNAs) in bone cancer and its progression. Through the analysis of patient chondrosarcoma samples, the researchers identified two sRNA candidates associated with overall patient survival: miR-140 and tRF-GlyTCC. MiR-140 was suggested to inhibit RUNX2, a gene upregulated in high-grade tumours. Simultaneously, tRF-GlyTCC was demonstrated to inhibit RUNX2 expression by displacing YBX1, a multifunctional protein with various roles in cellular processes. Interestingly, the researchers found that tRF-GlyTCC was attenuated during chondrosarcoma progression, indicating its potential involvement in disease advancement. Furthermore, since RUNX2 has been shown to drive bone cancer progression, the identified miR-140 and tRF-GlyTCC present themselves as promising therapeutic targets. CADD522 Dr Darrell Green and colleagues subsequently investigated the impact of a novel therapeutic agent, CADD522, designed to target RUNX2. In vitro experiments have revealed that CADD522 reduced proliferation in chondrosarcoma and osteosarcoma. However, a bimodal effect was observed in Ewing sarcoma, indicating that lower levels of CADD522 promoted sarcoma proliferation, whereas higher levels of the same drug suppressed proliferation. In mouse models treated with CADD522, there was a significant reduction in cancer volumes observed in both osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma. Take-home message The results described here contribute to understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in bone cancer. They highlight the anti-proliferative and anti-tumoral effects of CADD522 in treating osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma. Further research is necessary to fully elucidate the specific molecular mechanism of CADD522 in bone cancer and to identify potential side effects. Written by Favour Felix-Ilemhenbhio Related articles: Secondary bone cancer / Importance of calcium / Novel neuroblastoma driver for therapeutics Project Gallery

Most research studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Antiretroviral therapy: a key to helping HIV patients 09/07/25, 10:51 Last updated: Published: 12/10/24, 11:34 Most research studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) Human Immunodeficiency Virus, commonly called HIV, is a sexually transmitted disease that affects approximately 40 million people worldwide and is mostly common in ages 15-49 years. It is spread through direct contact with the blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, and vaginal fluids of an infected person through mucous membranes—contact with male and female genital tracks. Additionally, HIV can be spread through breast milk from mother to child—studies have shown that infants likely contract the virus when the milk makes contact with the mucous membranes of the gut. How does HIV affect immune cells? HIV is a retrovirus—enveloped RNA viruses that can evade the immune defense system and live within host cells indefinitely. To infect cells HIV uses several mechanisms to make contact with the host cell's membrane. This involves the binding of HIV envelope protein (Env) with the cell receptor CD4 of an immune cell (T-helper cells). Env then binds to a co-receptor on the surface of the cell membrane, triggering membrane fusion. Membrane fusion leads to formation of a fusion pore where HIV successfully enters into the cell's cytoplasm through. Following this, HIV converts its RNA to DNA using enzyme reverse transcriptase and then uses integrase enzymes to become a permanent part of the host cell’s DNA. This allows HIV to replicate at a rapid rate, eventually causing the cells to bloat and rupture, killing the cell all while also “hiding” from the immune defense system and going into latency. Such a process is what weakens the immune system as there is a significant depletion in T-helper cells—cells that fight off infections and diseases. The evolution of ART For the reasons above, HIV is almost impossible to cure. While research is still being conducted to find a cure for HIV, most studies are now being diverted to Antiretroviral Therapy (ART). ART is a revolutionary treatment introduced in the late 198 0s that aims to prevent transmission of HIV, prolong survival, improve immune function and increase CD4 cell count, and improve overall mortality. The first drug released in the late 1980’s was Zidovudine, a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) that essentially prevents HIV’s RNA from being converted to DNA. This restricted replication hence increasing T-helper cell count. However, while shown to improve the condition of HIV patients, zidovudine did not work well on its own and caused drug resistance from prolonged use. Combination therapy was later introduced where scientists discovered zidovudine to be effective when used alongside another NRTI (dideoxycytidine). This combination did improve CD4 cell count and the overall condition of most patients, not in patients with advanced HIV who had prior use of zidovudine alone. Now, several medications such as NRTIs, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), protease inhibitors, and integrase inhibitors have been introduced and are used in a combination of three (Triple-Drug Therapy) to help suppress viral load to undetectable levels in the blood and improve the overall quality of life for patients. Triple-drug therapy can be tailored by doctors to improve the patient's condition. HIV is a sexually transmitted, chronic condition that affects less than 1% of the world's population. There is no cure for HIV, however, treatments (ART) have been introduced to reduce the viral load of HIV as well as improve the overall quality of life of patients. Compared to the past where these medications had to be taken multiple times a day, often causing severe side effects, patients can now take just a single tablet daily. This has changed the course of HIV treatment, allowing people to live lengthy, normal lives with the disease. Written by Sherine A Latheef Related article: CRISPR-Cas9 to potentially treat HIV REFERENCES Guha D, Ayyavoo V. Innate immune evasion strategies by human immunodeficiency virus type 1. ISRN AIDS . 2013;2013:954806. Published 2013 Aug 12. doi:10.1155/2013/954806 AlBurtamani N, Paul A, Fassati A. The Role of Capsid in the Early Steps of HIV-1 Infection: New Insights into the Core of the Matter. Viruses . 2021;13(6):1161. Published 2021 Jun 17. doi:10.3390/v13061161 Pau AK, George JM. Antiretroviral therapy: current drugs. Infect Dis Clin North Am . 2014;28(3):371-402. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2014.06.001 Mayers, Douglas L. “Prevalence and Incidence of Resistance to Zidovudine and Other Antiretroviral Drugs.” The American Journal of Medicine , vol. 102, no. 5, May 1997, pp. 70–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9343(97)00067-3 . Accessed 5 Dec. 2021. “Antiretroviral Drug Discovery and Development | NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.” Www.niaid.nih.gov , www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/antiretroviral-drug-development#:~:text=D urable%20HIV%20Suppression%20with%20Triple%2DDrug%20Therapy&text=In %20December%201995%2C%20saquinavir%20became. CDC. “How HIV Spreads.” HIV , 14 May 2024, www.cdc.gov/hiv/causes/index.html . clinicalinfo.hiv.gov . (n.d.). Protease Inhibitor (PI) | NIH . [online] Available at: https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/glossary/protease-inhibitor-pi . www.who.int . (n.d.). HIV . [online] Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/hiv-aids#:~:text=Globally%2C%2039.9 %20million%20%5B36.1%E2%80%93. Project Gallery

Wildlife corridors are connecting habitats previously divided by roads Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Wildlife corridors: why did the sloth cross the road? Last updated: 16/09/25, 16:49 Published: 06/11/25, 08:00 Wildlife corridors are connecting habitats previously divided by roads Have you ever run over an animal while driving, or had to suddenly hit the brakes so an animal could cross the road? Engineers and ecologists have come up with genius solutions, collectively called wildlife corridors, so that this happens less often. This article is about two such solutions - green bridges, which are big vegetated overpasses, and rope bridges between trees. More than just roadkill Roads threaten animals because of a concept called habitat fragmentation. This is when big animal populations are split into two smaller populations with less resources and less genetic diversity than the original populations. Animals may try to move between habitat fragments in search of new food or mates, but die trying to cross the road. Either they walk directly onto the road and collide with cars, or they cross by walking over power lines and get electrocuted. Wildlife corridors allow animals to safely walk over roads, un-doing the habitat fragmentation and reducing their chance of extinction. Wolves in Germany A 2021 study analysed the activity of animals crossing a green bridge in Germany. This bridge, one of seven in the state of Brandenburg, was built in 2012 over the important A12 highway ( Figure 1 ). Using camera footage over a year, researchers found that grey wolves were more likely to use the bridge at dusk, at night, and in the winter. The deer and wild boars eaten by wolves were also more likely to use the bridge at dusk and at night, so the presence of wolves on the bridge did not deter their prey. Since 76% of wolves in Germany die in road-related incidents, bridges like this one are crucial for effective wolf conservation. Rope bridges in Costa Rica While Germany’s wolves and deer walk straight onto roads, Costa Rica’s tree-dwelling animals cross the road using power lines. This means the tree dwellers, including monkeys and sloths, are at risk of electrocution - in fact, nearly 1000 animals died of electrocution in Costa Rica in 2018-19. To reduce this risk, Costa Ricans have built rope bridges across the country as a safer alternative for wildlife to cross roads. Most bridges consist of a single blue nylon rope ( Figure 2a ), while researchers at the University of Costa Rica built rope bridges specially designed for howler monkeys ( Figure 2b ). Howler monkeys were targeted because of their endangered status and ecological role as seed and pollen dispersers. While the specialised bridges doubled howler monkey populations between 2015 and 2021, both them and classic rope bridges were used by squirrels, opossums, and kinkajous. However, a 2021 study found that animals use telephone lines to cross roads as frequently as they use rope bridges, and telephone lines are dangerously close to power lines. Some species still are not crossing using rope bridges, many years after their construction. Although the rope bridges are helping to reduce electrocution, they are not perfect. Heathland in the UK Closer to home, a brand-new green bridge called Cockrow Bridge will soon open in Surrey ( Figure 3 ). Surrey has lost 85% of its lowland heath in the last two centuries, but Ockham and Wisley Commons continue to support rare heathland species like the nightjar and sand lizard. These two commons, on either side of the A3/M25 junction, will be connected by the Cockrow Bridge into a 3 km-long stretch. Although existing heathland needs to be destroyed for construction, tree stumps and soil from the destroyed habitat will be repurposed on the bridge. Tree stumps will provide shelter to small animals, while the soil contains native roots and seeds to kickstart the bridge ecosystem. Since the public will be allowed on this bridge, it will improve our access to green spaces and bring revenue to local organisations. Therefore, Cockrow Bridge is expected to benefit wildlife and the public. Conclusion Wildlife corridors could be an important conservation tool by undoing habitat fragmentation, reducing roadkill, and preventing electrocution on power lines. Examples in Germany and Costa Rica look promising, and a unique heathland bridge is under construction here in the UK. Green bridges and rope bridges prove that modern infrastructure does not need to harm biodiversity, and humans can coexist with nature. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Gorongosa National Park / Protecting rock-wallabies in Australia REFERENCES The Sloth Conservation Foundation. Connected Gardens: facilitating the peaceful co-existence of sloths and people. [Internet]. [cited 2025 Apr 13]. Available from: https://slothconservation.org/what-we-do/habitat-connectivity/ Tobias N. Swinging to safety: How canopy bridges may save Costa Rica’s howlers. Mongabay Environmental News [Internet]. 2023 Feb 15 [cited 2025 Apr 13]; Available from: https://news.mongabay.com/2023/02/swinging-to-safety-how-canopy-bridges-may-save-costa-ricas-howlers/ Gilbey V, Petty R. UK’s first heathland green bridge. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Civil Engineering. 2024 Nov 1;177(6):99–110. Laidlaw K, Broadbent E, Eby S. Effectiveness of aerial wildlife crossings: Do wildlife use rope bridges more than hazardous structures to cross roads? Rev Biol Trop. 2021 Oct 1;69(3):1138–48. Plaschke M, Bhardwaj M, König HJ, Wenz E, Dobiáš K, Ford AT. Green bridges in a re‐colonizing landscape: Wolves ( Canis lupus ) in Brandenburg, Germany. Conservat Sci and Prac. 2021 Mar;3(3):e364. Project Gallery

Their applications and usefulness Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Importance of Emojis in Healthcare 11/07/25, 10:00 Last updated: Published: 23/06/24, 09:54 Their applications and usefulness The evolution of emojis Emojis are widely used visual symbols representing people, animals, objects and more. They can convey a writer’s tones and emotions, which can help clarify the meaning of messages. This allows the writer to build a connection with the person who has received the message. Emojis originated from smileys, which evolved into emoticons and, finally, emojis. Japanese originator Shigetaka Kurita released the first set of emojis in 1999, with the word “Emoji” being a transliteration of a Japanese word, with “e” meaning “picture”, “mo” meaning “write” and “ji” meaning “character”. Emojis in healthcare Emojis can play a significant role in healthcare by improving the communication of complex health concepts effectively, offering patients greater access to healthcare. Patients with limited health literacy would benefit from health reports containing emojis, which would help them understand and interpret information better. This was proven by a study by Stonbraker, Porras and Schnall (2019), which found that 94% of patients preferred reports with emojis as it aided their understanding. For example, emojis can be helpful in the field of dermatology, where they can be used to complement information regarding things such as lesions, colours, and symptoms, allowing doctors to communicate additional information to patients alongside primary concerns. In addition, emojis can be used in public health, such as to convey information about hand hygiene and infection prevention and control. By using emojis that are related to these fields, health professionals can communicate information and remind the public (especially patients with low levels of health literacy) to protect themselves against infections and the spread of diseases. Some existing emojis can be used to illustrate certain aspects of hand hygiene, such as touching (🤝), patient (🤒), clean (✨), procedure (💉), body fluid (🗣 💦), and exposure risk (❗). Using emojis in healthcare systems, especially infection prevention and control, can improve communication among healthcare providers and receivers, therefore improving health. The future of emojis in healthcare One of the limitations of incorporating emojis into healthcare is that they are unclear. In a healthcare context, this could lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations. Therefore, healthcare professionals must be cautious when using emojis in patient communication. Nevertheless, with clear guidelines and communication, if emojis are leveraged even more, they will play a very important role in healthcare communication, particularly in improving health literacy and access to healthcare for vulnerable patients. Due to new and evolving technology and communication, healthcare professionals also need to adapt, and using emojis could be a way this can happen. Emojis have been rapidly evolving, with new diverse and inclusive emojis continuously being introduced, such as anatomical emojis and skin tone customisations. With roughly 30 emojis being relevant to medicine — excluding generic body parts, such as the ear (👂), hand (🖐), leg (🦵), and foot (🦶) — there is potential to create more emojis related to medicine and healthcare. Researchers Debbie Lai and Shuhan He have already proposed an additional 15 medical emojis: intestines, leg cast, stomach, spine, liver, kidney, pill pack, blood bag, IV bag, CT scan, weight scale, pill box, ECG, crutches, and a white blood cell. Despite this, there is still a need for more diverse health-related emojis. This gap can be filled by the upcoming generation of students who study health sciences, as they can use their medical and digital knowledge to create emojis to communicate aspects of health care not currently represented, such as CPR, drawing blood, and more. It is important to acknowledge the limitations and potential barriers to using emojis in healthcare. For example, they could be ambiguous, leading to misunderstandings and misinterpretations. Therefore, healthcare professionals should be careful while using them in patient communication and follow any guidelines to minimise this. Conclusion Overall, emojis can have significant benefits, as they have proven to be a powerful tool in healthcare by enhancing health literacy and improving the communication of complicated health concepts to patients. Therefore, it is important to have clear guidelines on how and when to use emojis in a healthcare setting to increase their effectiveness. Health science students can contribute meaningfully to this field by proposing and creating new emojis. Written by Naoshin Haque Related article: Virtual reality in healthcare Project Gallery

Exploring the genetic roots of a neurological tragedy Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Breaking down Tay-Sachs 15/05/25, 10:43 Last updated: Published: 20/04/24, 11:29 Exploring the genetic roots of a neurological tragedy This is article no. 9 in a series on rare diseases. Next article: Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome . Previous article: Pseudo-Angelman Syndrome . Tay-Sachs disease is a heritable metabolic condition that affects the neurons in the brain. The disease is more common in infants and young children as well as people of Ashkenazi Jewish descent, although it can occur in any ethnicity. Symptoms of the disease most commonly manifest themselves in children around six months of age. However, it is possible to develop symptoms from five years old to the teenage years. There are three different forms of the disease, each appearing at different stages of life: infantile, juvenile, and adult. The adult form is much rarer and non-fatal but can still cause neuron dysfunction and psychosis. Early symptoms of the disease include mobility issues such as difficulty crawling, and as the disease progresses, the child may suffer from seizures, vision, and hearing loss. In the classic infantile form, the disease is fatal within the first few years of life or by three to five years old. In infants, infection and respiratory complications, such as pneumonia, are the most common cause of death. Being categorised as an autosomal recessive disease means that in order to display the phenotype, two copies of the mutated HEXA gene must be present in an individual. This HEXA gene is located on chromosome 15 and is responsible for producing enzymes that affect the nerve cells. The carrier frequency of Tay-Sachs is highly dependent on ethnic backgrounds, with carrier frequency being 1 in 30 for those of Ashkenazi Jewish descent and 1 in 300 for others. The chance of developing the disease early or late is predicated on the specific type of HEXA mutation that is inherited within the family. Meaning, if one child in a family possesses the infantile form, all other members of the family will also possess the infantile form (if they express the phenotype). When both parents are carriers of the Tay-Sachs gene mutation, there is a 25% chance with each pregnancy that the child will inherit two mutated copies of the HEXA gene and thus be affected by the disease. Also, there is a 50% chance the child will be a carrier like the parents and a 25% chance the child will inherit two normal copies of the gene and be unaffected. Furthermore, this particular type of gene mutation results in the disease being commonly labelled as a hexosaminidase A deficiency. The HEXA gene’s significance in the disease is further highlighted due to its ability to code for specific alpha subunits in the enzyme β-hexosaminidase A. This enzyme is involved in breaking down molecules that can be recycled in a cell through the use of lysosomes. This key cellular function helps a cell undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) or help evade bacteria that can damage a cell. However, in individuals with this HEXA gene mutation, less of the enzyme β-hexosaminidase A is produced, which results in less degradation of GM2 ganglioside. GM2 ganglioside is a lipid involved in a host of processes such as membrane organisation, neuronal differentiation, and signal transduction. In addition, due to its lack of degradation, it accumulates inside the body. The rate at which the lipid accumulates inside the cell ultimately determines the form of Tay-Sachs an individual will possess. It is worth noting that this GM2 ganglioside pathology also includes other diseases, such as Sandhoff disease and the AB variant, which have similar disease prognoses. Furthermore, the disease specifically targets the brain as gangliosides are the main lipids that compose neuronal plasma membranes. Their expression is specific to brain regions, impacting key neurodevelopmental processes like neural tube formation and synaptogenesis. Furthermore, ganglioside synthesis is a highly regulated process facilitated by glycosyltransferases during transcription and post-transcription. They also modulate ion channels and receptor signalling, which are crucial for neurotransmission, memory, and learning. The exact mechanism of how this ganglioside accumulation due to HEXA malfunction leads to neuronal death remains unclear. Figure 1 illustrates the dysfunction of the alpha subunit in HEXA as it cannot break down GM2 gangliosides. This results in an accumulation of GM2 within the liposome, contrasting with its concentration in the external environment. This accumulation of GM2 causes lysosomal dysfunction and eventually cell damage, which leads to the symptoms commonly associated with Tay-Sachs. Mouse models have been created to understand this GM2 pathway in greater detail to develop treatments. However, this is quite limited as mice do not have the same pathway of breaking down GM2 as humans. Also, since the disease may be prevalent before birth, it is hard to establish the damage done to a baby inside the womb, making reversing this disease in infants very challenging. However, the later onset types of Tay-Sachs disease might respond to treatment. Implementing ganglioside synthesis inhibitors in combination with existing DNA and enzymatic screening programs holds promise for eventually managing and controlling this condition. Parents can undergo genetic screening to assess their risk of carrying the Tay-Sachs gene, which is done by doing a simple blood test that examines the DNA for mutations in the HEXA gene. Genetic screening is particularly important for couples who have a family history of Tay-Sachs disease or who belong to ethnic groups with a higher prevalence of the condition. Early detection through genetic screening allows couples to make informed reproductive decisions, such as pursuing in vitro fertilisation with preimplantation genetic testing or opting for prenatal testing during pregnancy to determine if the foetus has inherited the mutated gene. Utilising the acronym SHADES as a mnemonic to recognise potential signs of Tay-Sachs disease in their child can help parents get a prompt medical evaluation if any symptoms arise. SHADES: S tartle response H earing loss A ffecting vision D evelopmental delay E pileptic seizures S wallowing difficulties Written by Imron Shah REFERENCES Center, N. (2015). Tay-Sachs disease. Nih.gov . Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22250/ . Leal, A.F., Benincore-Flórez, E., Solano-Galarza, D., Garzón Jaramillo, R.G., Echeverri-Peña, O.Y., Suarez, D.A., Alméciga-Díaz, C.J. and Espejo-Mojica, A.J. (2020). GM2 Gangliosidoses: Clinical Features, Pathophysiological Aspects, and Current Therapies. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(17), p.6213. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21176213 . Ramani, P.K. and Parayil Sankaran, B. (2022). Tay-Sachs Disease. PubMed. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK564432/ . Project Gallery

Looking at p53 mutations and cancer predisposition Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Decoding p53: the guardian against cancer 09/07/25, 14:03 Last updated: Published: 23/11/23, 11:38 Looking at p53 mutations and cancer predisposition Being a tumour suppressor protein, p53 encoded by the TP53 gene plays a critical role in regulating cell division and preventing the formation of tumours. Its function in maintaining genome stability is vital in inhibiting cancer development. Understanding p53 Located on chromosome locus 17p13.1, TP53 encodes the p53 transcription factor 1. Consisting of three domains, p53 can directly initiate or suppress the expression of 3661 different genes involved in cell cycle control and DNA repair 2. With this control, p53 can influence cell division on a massive scale. Cancer is characterised by uncontrolled cell division, which can occur due to accumulated mutations in either proto-oncogenes or tumour suppressor genes. Wild-type p53 can repair mutations in oncogenes such that they will not affect cell division. However, if p53 itself is mutated, then its ability to repair DNA and control the cell cycle is inhibited, leading to the emergence of cancer. Mutations in TP53 are actually the most prevalent genetic alterations found in patients with cancer. The mechanisms by which mutated p53 leads to cancer are manifold. One such mechanism is p53’s interaction with p21. Encoded by CDKN1A , p21 is activated by p53 and prevents cell cycle progression by inhibiting the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). Therefore, we can see that a non-functional p53 would lead directly to uncontrolled cell division and cancer. Clinical significance The importance of p53 in preventing cancer is highlighted by the fact that individuals with inherited TP53 mutations (a condition known as Li-Fraumeni syndrome or LFS) have a significantly greater risk of developing any cancer. These individuals inherit one defective TP53 allele from one parent, making them highly susceptible to losing the remaining functional TP53 allele, ultimately leading to cancer. Loss of p53 also endows cells with the ability to ignore pro-apoptotic signals such that if a cell becomes cancerous, it is far less likely to undergo programmed cell death 3. Its interactions with the apoptosis-inducing proteins Bax and Bak, are lost when mutated, thus leading to cellular apoptosis resistance. The R337H mutation in TP53 is an example of the founder effect at work. The founder effect refers to the loss of genetic variation when a large population descends from a smaller population of fewer individuals. The descendants of the initial population are much more likely to harbour genetic variations that are less common in the species as a whole. In southern Brazil, the R337H mutation in p53 is present at an unusually high frequency 4 and is thought to have been introduced by European settlers several hundred years ago. It is responsible for a widespread incidence of early-onset breast cancers, LFS, and paediatric adrenocortical tumours. Interestingly, individuals with this mutation can trace their lineage back to the group of European settlers that set foot in Brazil hundreds of years ago. Studying p53 has enabled us to unveil its intricate web of interactions with other proteins and molecules within the cell and unlock the secrets of cancer development and potential therapeutic strategies. By restoring or mimicking the functions of p53, we may be able to provide cancer patients with some relief from this life-changing condition. Written by Malintha Hewa Batage Related articles: Zinc finger proteins / Anti-freeze proteins Project Gallery

Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Epilepsy 101: what are the different types of epilepsy seizures? Last updated: 29/04/25, 16:09 Published: 27/02/25, 08:00 Seizures are not mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness After previously covering a very generic overview into epilepsy – what it is, its different types, methods of diagnosis and treatment, it would be a good idea to really delve deeper into the different types of seizures. Are they just convulsions, shaking and losing consciousness? Or is there more to it? Read more to find out! But before we begin, it is important to cover some key terms and prefixes, to help us with understanding what the different types of seizures are: Myo-: muscle Clonic: repeated jerking Tonic: muscle stiffness Atonic: muscles become limp Motor: movement From our previous article , we know that the two main types of epilepsy are generalised and focal epilepsy. Each type of epilepsy has different types of seizures associated with it. Generalised epilepsy – it consists of 2 main types of seizures (motor and non-motor seizures): 1) Generalised Motor Seizures: Involves changes in muscle activity, where they either move abnormally, or don’t move at all. This includes: Myoclonic seizures: sudden body jerks (especially the hands or the legs) as if someone had been jolted with electricity. Tonic - Clonic (Grand mal) seizures: This seizure has 2 main phases – a tonic and clonic stage:- Initial tonic (stiffness) phase is followed by a clonic (repeated, uncontrolled jerking of the limbs) phase. During the 'tonic' phase, the person may become unconscious and fall to the floor. In the 'clonic' phase, the person might struggle to breathe or uncontrollably bite their tongue. This is probably the ‘typical’ seizure everyone thinks of when they hear about epilepsy! Atonic seizures: The muscles become limp, and the person might even collapse. 2) Generalised non-motor seizures: They are usually also referred to as 'absence seizures', and they don’t include any changes in muscle activity. Instead, the person might stare into space, and might have a pause in activity, or a repetition in movements, such as lip-smacking for around 15 seconds or less. The individual may not remember what happened during the seizure; however their normal state of alertness is regained immediately after. People might easily confuse this type of seizure with daydreaming! Focal epilepsy- This is split into 4 main types based on whether the person is aware of their seizure, and if there are any changes in muscle activity involved: 1) Focal awareness seizures: Patient is fully aware of what is happening during a seizure, even if they are unable to move or respond. Some people might experience an "aura" as a warning before this seizure. This could feel like a strange sensation, fear, euphoria, a sense of déjà vu, feeling that something bad is about to happen, visual changes or even tingling or stiffness in their body. 2) Focal impaired awareness seizures: The person isn’t aware of their seizure, nor can they remember having it, and can’t respond to anyone during the seizure. The seizure can include movements such as moving their hands and legs or making random noises. 3) Focal Motor Seizures: involves random muscle activity, such as twitching, stiffness, limpness, or other movements such as rubbing hands, lip-smacking and walking around. 4) Focal Non-motor Seizures: no muscle movements or stiffness (as this is a non-motor seizure), but there is a change in a patient’s feelings and thoughts, causing strange feelings, a racing heart, and waves of heat or cold. Now that we’ve covered the key seizures, what triggers epilepsy seizures, causing those lights in the city (which in this case, is our brain) to start flickering or shut completely? There are many different causes, and they vary from one person to another. They could include: Stress Lack of sleep Drinking alcohol Consuming illegal drugs Not taking your anti-seizure medication (ASMs) Some types of medication Menstrual Cycle and hormonal changes Flashing lights (for individuals with photosensitive epilepsy) Photosensitive epilepsy is epilepsy that is triggered by flashing of lights, causing seizures such as myoclonic seizures. It is interesting to see how many people hold the misconception that seizures are mainly uncontrolled jerking and losing consciousness, when in fact there’s a huge variety of seizure! It is important that we know what different seizures look like, so we could help these individuals appropriately. Don’t be afraid to read further about epilepsy and seizures, and how to help people out there! Written by Hanin Salem Related articles: Epilepsy 101 (overview) / Traumatic brain injuries REFERENCES Dhanyamraju, S. (2019). What is a Seizure? - Lone Star Neurology . [online] Lone Star Neurology. Available at: https://lonestarneurology.net/seizures/seizures/ . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Ditki medical & biological sciences. (n.d.). Neurological System Glossary: Tonic-Clonic Seizure . [online] Available at: https://ditki.com/course/neurological-system/glossary/eeg-findings/tonic-clonic-seizure . [Accessed 19 Dec. 2024]. Epilepsy action (2022). Focal seizures | Epilepsy Action . [online] www.epilepsy.org.uk . Available at: https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/seizures/focal-seizures [Accessed 18 Dec. 2024]. John Hopkins Medicine (n.d.). Generalized Seizures . [online] Available at: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/epilepsy/generalized-seizures#:~:text=Generalized%20seizures%20include%20absence%2C%20atonic [Accessed 17 Dec.2024]. NHS (2020). Symptoms - Epilepsy . [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/epilepsy/symptoms/ [Accessed 17 Dec. 2024]. Project Gallery

Based on the ideas of Aristippus and Aristotle Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link A perspective on well-being: hedonic VS eudaimonic well-being 08/07/25, 16:16 Last updated: Published: 02/07/24, 10:51 Based on the ideas of Aristippus and Aristotle Since ancient times well-being has been discussed in two broad domains: hedonic and eudaimonic. Hedonic well-being is based on the ideas of Aristippus, who proposed that the ultimate aim of all human endeavours and pursuits is pleasure (hedonism). Therefore, hedonic well-being (aka subjective well-being) is a shorter-term evaluation of well-being that balances between positive and negative emotions and between pleasure attainment and pain avoidance. A real-life example of behaviour that leads to hedonic happiness is spending a large amount of money on a designer item to satisfy the need to stay current with fashion trends. According to Keyes et al. (2002), the three aspects of subjective well-being are positive affect (mood), negative affect (mood) and life satisfaction. The most common tools used to measure subjective well-being are the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) by Watson, Clark & Tellegen (1988) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) by Diener et al. (1985). Subjective well-being has been associated with having a present temporal focus and higher income levels, suggesting it is grounded in physical aspects of life and not the greater goals of self-actualisation. On the other hand, eudaimonic well-being is based on the philosophy of Aristotle, who argued that humans can only achieve true happiness and flourish by finding meaning and purpose in life (eudaimonia). Thus, eudaimonic well-being (aka psychological well-being) is a longer-term evaluation of well-being that results from engagement with development and challenges in life posed during the search for meaning and self-reflection. An example of an action that leads to eudaimonic happiness is reading philosophical books and learning more about life holistically. According to Keyes et al. (2002), the six aspects of psychological well-being are autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, purpose in life, positive relations with others and self-acceptance. The Scales of Psychological Well-being by Riff (1989) are often used to measure eudaimonic well-being. Recent research shows that psychological well-being is associated with higher levels of self-compassion, mindfulness practices and exposure to natural environments. Therefore, hedonic and eudaimonic well-being represent distinct perspectives on life. Hedonic well-being is more focused on a person's present emotional state and evaluation of their current life circumstances, whereas eudaimonic well-being takes a longer-term view, considering how well a person is functioning and developing their potential over time. The two different types of well-being also are related to separate life outcomes. Higher subjective well-being is associated with better physical health, longevity and relationship quality; while greater psychological well-being is linked to resilience, continued personal growth and self-actualisation. Whilst perhaps it is impossible to determine which well-being is more beneficial, it is definite that hedonic and eudaimonic well-being are intertwined into our daily lives. Written by Aleksandra Lib Related articles: Motivating the mind / Environmental factors and exercise / Physical and mental health / Life under occupation REFERENCES Diener, E., & Chan, M. Y. (2011). Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3 (1), 1-43. Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of personality assessment , 49 (1), 71-75. Howell, A. J., Passmore, H.-A., & Holder, M. D. (2023). Savoring the here and now: The role of temporal focus for well-being. Journal of Positive Psychology, 18 (2), 221-236. Keyes, C. L., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: the empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of personality and social psychology , 82 (6), 1007. Koo, J., & Park, K. (2022). Does money buy happiness after all? Revisiting the income-wellbeing link. Journal of Happiness Studies, 23 (3), 1133-1154. Mair, C., Jarrett, M., Watson, M., & Jones, P. B. (2022). The impact of nature exposure on psychological well-being: A systematic review. Environmental Research, 208 , 112677. Krieger, T., Hermann, H., Zimmermann, J., & grosse Holtforth, M. (2022). The role of self-compassion in promoting psychological well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 69 (4), 380–396. Ryff, C.D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57 , 1069–1081. Ryff, C. D. (2014). Psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83 (1), 10-28. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of personality and social psychology , 54 (6), 1063. Project Gallery

VR in pain management, and mental health treatment Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The potential of virtual reality (VR) in healthcare Last updated: 27/03/25, 15:44 Published: 06/03/25, 08:00 VR in pain management, and mental health treatment Introduction The term 'extended reality' (XR) consists of three concepts: augmented reality, mixed reality and virtual reality (VR). The Oxford English Dictionary defines VR as a 'computer-generated simulation of a lifelike environment that a person can interact with in a seemingly real or physical way'. When you think of VR, you might think of headsets, goggles and gaming. However, you might not know that VR can have huge potential in healthcare as a non-pharmacological intervention. Research has shown that active VR, where patients interact and engage more with the virtual environment, becoming immersed, works better than passive VR, where patients just view content. In this article, I will look at the use of VR in two cases: for pain management and mental health treatment. VR for pain management VR-based treatments for pain management work by attention modulation, also known as focus-shifting, providing distraction analgesia (pain relief) by shifting a patient’s focus away from the pain to the virtual environment. To access the VR set-up, patients use a head-mounted display (HMD) and hardware. VR uses technology that stimulates the senses, particularly sight, sound, and touch, reducing the amount of pain a patient feels by changing the pain intensity; it is especially useful when a patient experiences sharp and sudden pain, including pain during labour or post-surgery. Additionally, VR changes how the brain processes pain by affecting the pain-control system, which includes regions like the periaqueductal grey (PAG) and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Specifically for chronic pain (persistent pain that lasts for more than three months), VR can help patients develop techniques to manage their pain better over time, such as by improving their physical abilities, like moving their arms or legs more easily and improving their muscular endurance. For example, Merlot et al. (2023) found that for women with endometriosis-related pelvic pain who used Endocare (a VR software designed to reduce pain for those with endometriosis), women reported that it reduced pain intensity, with Endocare's maximum pain reduction being 51.58% compared to 27.37% in the sham control group. VR for mental health treatment VR-based treatments have also proven to be effective in treating mental health conditions, helping patients to manage conditions such as anxiety and depression. This is because they can replicate a negative environment within a controlled and safe VR setting, helping patients manage and confront their triggers. The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation has stated that as of 2019, 301 million people were living with an anxiety disorder, and 58 million of them (about 20% of those with anxiety) were children and adolescents. Regarding depression, the statistic was 280 million people, including 23 million (nearly 10% of those with anxiety) children and adolescents. For anxiety, VR-based treatments use exposure treatment, where patients are confronted with the stimuli, but the expected outcome does not occur. Repeating the exposure leads to patients’ anxiety decreasing over time since their perception of the stimuli leading to the feared outcome does not come true. For example, someone with a fear of heights would undergo VR-based exposure treatment where they would be exposed to heights. They would be guided through a learning process, and after multiple exposures, they would think of heights as being safe, leading to less fear of heights overall. For depression, VR-based treatments use behavioural activation so that individuals can reconnect with activities they enjoy. This can help patients develop and learn coping strategies, improving their mood and reducing depressive symptoms. VR-based treatments will be particularly helpful for children and adolescents. The statistics by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation clearly show that a high percentage of those with mental health conditions are young people, and general research has shown that they will be less likely to seek professional help and receive appropriate care. VR could help this group by becoming a more appealing therapy method, especially through gamification, making children and adolescents more motivated and more likely to participate in treatment. This method would provide an immersive environment and could be a personalised form of therapy. Implications for the future It is important to note that there are still limitations stopping a wider roll-out of VR within healthcare. For example, VR can cause cybersickness, the virtual equivalent of motion sickness, resulting in nausea, disorientation, and headaches. In addition, within the use of VR for young people, more research needs to be conducted on whether gamified therapies are safe and effective. Nevertheless, these limitations can be mitigated. Technology is advancing rapidly, and newer hardware have a better field of vision and refresh rates of visual content. The VR environment is also being designed better, accounting for individual patient preferences. With further research, scientists can examine in more detail the factors that make VR-based therapies effective and implement them in a way that addresses ethical concerns and increases their effectiveness. Written by Naoshin Haque Related articles: Clinical scientist computing / Smart bandages / Emojis in healthcare Project Gallery