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Life's origins Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The genesis of life 09/03/26, 14:46 Last updated: Published: 23/11/23, 11:22 Life's origins Did the egg or the chicken come first? This question is often pondered regarding life’s origin and how biological systems came into play. How did chemistry move to biology to support life? And how have we evolved into such complex organisms? The ingredients, conditions and thermodynamically favoured reactions hold the answer, but understanding the inner workings of life’s beginnings poses a challenge for us scientists. Under an empirical approach, how can we address these questions if these events occurred 3.7 billion years ago? The early atmosphere of the Earth To approach these questions, it is relevant to understand the atmospheric contents of the primordial Earth. With a lack of oxygen, the predominant make-up included CO2, NH3 and H2, creating a reducing environment for the drive of chemical reactions. When the earth cooled, and the atmosphere underwent condensation, pools of chemicals were made - this is known as “primordial soup”. It is thought that reactants could collide from this “soup” to synthesise nucleotides by forming nitrogenous bases and bonds, such as glycosidic or hydrogen bonds. Such nucleotide monomers were perhaps polymerised to create long chains for nucleic acid synthesis, that is, RNA, via this abiotic synthesis. Thus, if we have nucleic acids, genetic information could have been stored and passed later down the line, allowing for our eventual evolution. Note: there has now been a c hange in terminology from primordial soup, to focus on protocellular systems and the geochemically driven origin of life hypothesis. Conditions for nucleic acid synthesis The environment supported the formation of monomers for said polymerisation. For example, hydrothermal vents could have provided the reducing power via protons, allowing for the protonation of structures and providing the free energy for bond formation. Biology, of course, relies on protons for the proton gradient in ATP synthesis at the mitochondrial membrane and, in general, acid-base catalysis in enzymatic reactions. Therefore, it is safe to say protons played a vital role in life’s emergence. The eventual formation of structures by protonation and deprotonation provides the enzymatic theory of life’s origins. That is, some self-catalytic ability for replication in a closed system and the evolution of complex biological units. This is the “RNA World” theory, which will be discussed later. Another theory is wet and dry cycling at the edge of hydrothermal pools. This theory Is provided by David Deamer, who suggests that nucleic acid monomers placed in acidic (pH 3) and hot (70-90 degrees Celsius) pools could undergo condensation reactions for ester bond formation. It highlights the need for low water activity and a “kinetic trap” in which the condensation reaction rate exceeds the hydrolysation rate. The heat of the pool provides a high activation energy for the localised generation of polymers without the need for a membrane-like compartment. But even if this was possible and nucleic acids could be synthesised, how could we “keep them safe”? This issue is addressed by the theory of "protocells" formed from fatty acid vesicles. Jack Szostak suggests phase transition (that is pH decrease) allowed for the construction of bilayer membranes from fatty acid monomers, which is homologous to what we see now in modern cells. The fatty acids in these vesicles have the ability to “flip-flop” to allow for the exchange of nutrients or nucleotides in and out of the vesicles. It is suggested that clay encapsulated nucleotide monomers were brought into the protocell by this flip-flop action. Vesicles could grow by competing with surrounding smaller vesicles. Larger vesicles are thought to be those harbouring long polyanionic molecules - that is RNA - which creates immense osmotic pressure pushing outward on the protocell for absorption of smaller vesicles. This represents the Darwinian “survival of the fittest” theory in which cells with more RNA are favoured for survival. The RNA World Hypothesis DNA is often seen as the “Saint” of all things biology, given its ability to store and pass genetic information to mRNA and then mRNA can use this information to synthesise polypeptides. This is the central dogma, of course. However, the RNA world hypothesis suggests that RNA arose first due to its ability to form catalytic 3D structures and store genetic information that could have allowed for further synthesis of DNA. This makes sense when you think about how the primer for DNA replication is formed out of RNA. If RNA did not come first, how could DNA replication be possible? Many other scenarios suggest RNA evolution preceded that of DNA. So, if RNA arose as a simple polymer, its ability to form 3D structures could have allowed ribozymes (RNA with enzymatic function) within these protocells. Ribozymes, such as RNA ligase and polymerase, could have allowed for self-replication, and then mutation in primary structure could have allowed evolution to occur. If we have a catalyst, in a closed system, with nutrient exchange, then why would life’s formation not be possible? But how can we show that RNA can arise in this way? The answer to this is SELEX - selective evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (5). This system was developed by Jack Szostak, who wanted to show the evolution of complex RNA, ribozymes in a test tube was possible. A pool of random, fragmented RNA molecules can be added to a chamber and run through a column with beads. These beads harbour some sequence or attraction to the RNA molecules the column is selecting for. Those that attach can be eluted, and those that do not can be disregarded. The bound RNA can be rerun through SELEX, and the conditions in the column can be more specific in that only the most complementary RNAs bind. This allowed for the development of RNA ligase and RNA polymerase - thus, self-replication of RNA is possible. SELEX helps us understand how the evolution of RNA in the primordial Earth could have been possible. This is also established by meteorites, such as carbon chondrites that burnt up in the earth’s atmosphere encapsulating the organic material in the centre. Chondrites found in Antarctica have been found to contain 80+ amino acids (some of which are not compatible with life). These chondrites also included nucleobases. So, if such monomers can be synthesised in a hostile environment in outer space/in our atmosphere, then the theory of abiotic synthesis is supported. Furthermore, it is relevant to address the abiotic synthesis of amino acids since the evolution of catalytic RNA could have some complementarity for polypeptide synthesis. Miller and Urey (1953) set up a simple experiment containing gas representing the early primordial earth (Methane, hydrogen, ammonia, water). They used a conduction rod to provide the electrical discharge (meant to simulate lightning or volcanic eruption) to the gases and then condensed them. The water in the other chamber turned pink/ brown. Following chromatography, they identified amino acids in the mixture. These simple manipulations could have been homologous to early life. There has lately been a new concept introduced of the thioester-RNA link, which unites the RNA world theory with the thioester world theory (which states that thioesters played a powerful role in the earliest stages of life). Recent findings suggest that the beginnings of life likely formed from both thioesters and RNA. Conclusion The abiotic synthesis of nucleotides and amino acids for their later polymerisation would support the theories that address chemistry moving toward biological life. Protocells containing such polymers could have been selected based on their “fitness” and these could have mutated to allow for the evolution of catalytic RNA. The experiments mentioned represent a small fragment of those carried out to answer the questions of life’s origins. The evidence provides a firm ground for the emergence of life to the complexity of what we know today. Written by Holly Kitley Project Gallery

Navigating the silence Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Unveiling the underreported challenges of endometriosis 09/03/26, 14:55 Last updated: Published: 25/11/23, 11:22 Navigating the silence What is endometriosis? Endometriosis is a chronic, neuro-inflammatory disease that affects 1 in 10 women in the UK. It is associated with debilitating chronic pelvic pain caused by tissue alike the lining of the womb (uterus) grows outside the uterus in other places like the ovaries and fallopian tubes. Endometriosis can affect any woman of reproductive age with a lifelong impact and can even lead to infertility. During a normal menstrual cycle, the body undergoes monthly hormonal changes. Natural hormonal release causes the uterus lining to thicken in preparation of a fertilised egg. If there is no pregnancy, the uterus lining will break down and bleed and is then released from the body in the form of a period. In endometriosis, tissue alike to the uterus lining tissue behaves in the same way the uterus tissue behaves every month during the menstrual period: building up, breaking down then bleeding. Unlike the womb tissue broken down blood, this blood has no way to leave. The internal bleeding causes inflammation, debilitating pain, and scar tissue formation. The symptoms are: · Painful, heavy, long periods · Infertility · Pain during or after sex · Painful bowel movements · Mood disorders like anxiety or depression · Chronic fatigue · Chronic pelvic pain The challenges of endometriosis Contrary to popular belief, period pain is not normal and can be experienced by those without endometriosis. The main point is if your period pain is interfering with your daily life, please consult your doctor. There are many challenges behind endometriosis from the hard time a patient has to get a diagnosis, to the severely under-research of the condition. Unfortunately, since endometriosis shares symptoms with many other conditions, diagnosis can be delayed and strenuous with recent research showing the average time to get a firm diagnosis being 7.5 years. A 2021 focus group in the Netherlands also shows the many issues with diagnosing endometriosis. Many of the focus group reported having a hard time finding a doctor who does not dismiss their concerns, undermine their pain, or dismiss them with paracetamol or ibuprofen which patients have reported as not strong for the pain endometriosis causes. Little research has been done on how effective paracetamol or ibuprofen is with endometriosis pain, but anecdotal evidence suggests it is not effective. Many of them reported their concerns being unheard, told to come back when they want to have a child and that their pain is normal, so they don’t need to see a doctor. Research for endometriosis is heavily underfunded; women reproductive health disorders are generally underfunded. There is a huge gender disparity with disorders that mostly affect men being over-funded while disorders affecting mostly women being underfunded. A 2018 analysis by the UK Clinical Research Collaboration reported findings of only 2.1% of public funded medical research going towards childbirth and reproductive health which is down from 2.5% in 2014. A 16% funding decrease over a 4-year period. The UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) has funded just over 40 endometriosis-related projects since 2003. However, diabetes which has the same incident rate but affecting both sexes instead of one like endometriosis has been funded 1891 projects in the same time. Just over 1m was funded to 6 of the endometriosis projects compared almost 250 diabetes projected with more than 10 receiving funding greater than £10 million. In 2020 the UK’s All-Part Parliament Group (APPG) report on endometriosis calls the attention of the cause of the disorder being unclear: Historically, with limited investment in research into women’s health in general, there’s been so little investment in research into endometriosis that we don’t even know what causes it, and without knowing the cause, a cure cannot be found. The APPG called for more investment into the cause, diagnosis, treatment, and management options of endometriosis. Without investment in research, this condition will rob the next generation of women [of] the education, care, and support they deserve. With more awareness being brought up by endometriosis charities, researchers and the affected group, the hard work and motivation may pay off soon. That being said, relugolix combination therapy for this disease was approved in March 2025, with linzagolix being approved a few months later in May 2025- both under the NHS. Written by Blessing O. Related articles: Breakthrough in endometriosis treatment / Gynaecology Project Gallery

Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and the other sciences. Log In Welcome to Scientia News DELIVERING INFORMATIVE CONTENT Scientia News is full of STEM blogs, articles and resources freely available across the globe for students. Browse all of our fascinating content written by students and professionals showing their passion in STEM and other sciences. We hope this platform helps you discover something that inspires your curiosity, and encourages you to learn more about important topics in STEM. Meet the Official Team NAVIGATE AND CLICK THE PHOTOS BELOW TO LEARN MORE ABOUT US! To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. To play, press and hold the enter key. To stop, release the enter key. Latest Articles chemistry Molecular blueprints: the synthesis of ibuprofen View More chemistry Looking at the rare earth elements View More biology Ethnic Health Inequalities View More pharmacology The promising effects of magic mushrooms for depression View More CONTACT CONTACT US Scientia News welcomes anyone who wants to share their ideas and write for our platform. If you are interested in realising your writing potential with us AND live in the UK; and/ or would like to give feedback: Email us at scientianewsorg@gmail.com or fill in our GET IN TOUCH form below and we'll be in contact... Follow us on our socials for the latest updates. Comment, like and share! Join our mailing list below for latest site content. You can also sign up to become a site member . SUBSCRIPTION Join our mailing list to receive alerts for new articles and other site content. Be sure to check your spam/ junk folders in case emails are sent there. Email Subscribe GET IN TOUCH First Name Last Name Email Message Send Thanks for submitting!

The tireless challenge Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Childhood stunting in developing countries 09/03/26, 15:17 Last updated: Published: 09/03/24, 17:53 The tireless challenge Introduction Certain countries worldwide face numerous challenges that decrease their populations' quality of life; some include hunger, poverty and rising harmful emissions, which are complicated to resolve. This is because international cooperation is needed to tackle them effectively. Another significant challenge faced is stunting, defined as diminished growth and development that children experience, because of undernutrition or lack of sufficient nutrients, frequent infections and deficient psychosocial interventions, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO). As of 2025, the latest findings reveal that an estimated 127 million children in the globe are affected by stunting. WHO's target of stunting reduction by 2030 has not yet been met (the target was originally for 2025, but was forced to be pushed back due to slow progress). With this definition in mind, this article will delve into stunting and malnutrition before discussing how stunting is linked to infectious diseases and harmful emissions, and steps forward to reduce this condition in developing countries, as shown in Figure 2 . Undernutrition and stunting Stunting is one of the consequences of undernutrition, possibly due to reduced synthesis of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the body, leading to amplified growth hormone (6). As for the determinants of undernutrition, a paper from Brazil found socioeconomic characteristics like family income and biological ones such as age notably linked to undernutrition. Another result of undernutrition is being underweight. A systematic review from Ethiopia focusing on nutrition in 5-year-old children amalgamated 18 studies. It estimated that stunting and being underweight had 42% and 33% prevalence, respectively; it could be inferred that undernutrition is linked to stunting. Additionally, a paper that used data from 32 Sub-Saharan African countries discovered that providing maternal health insurance (MHI) reduces stunting and being underweight, which explains that boys are more likely to be affected by stunting than girls in all UN regions and sub-regions. In turn, MHI is necessary for supporting children’s health. Non-nutritional factors and stunting As for infections and stunting, an article highlighted that children with stunted growth are vulnerable to diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases besides malaria. Moreover, conditions worsen undernutrition, causing a vicious cycle between them, manifesting into growth defects. Furthermore, a systematic review of 80 studies found a connection between helminth infections and stunting, but insufficient evidence supported this hypothesis. With this said, there may need to be additional studies to investigate this further. With undernutrition’s impact on the immune system, newborns and small children with extreme protein deficiency have smaller thymuses and underdeveloped peripheral lymphoid organs, leading to immunological cell defects such as reduced T-cell count. Before concluding this article, exposure to harmful emissions is a recurring problem that affects everyone, including children. Different observational studies proposed that inhaling nitrogen oxide and particulate matter in utero could modify DNA methylation, possibly influencing foetal growth. Conclusion Reflecting on all the evidence in this article, stunting in developing countries is heading in a direction where it could become problematic. However, according to findings from UNICEF, stunting has gradually reduced between 2000 and 2020 in children under 5 years old. Nevertheless, awareness of stunting in developing countries is critical because it is the first step to tackling this health issue, and ultimately meet the WHO target by 2030. Written by Sam Jarada Related articles: Childhood obesity / Depression in children / Postpartum depression in adolescent mothers REFERENCES Jamali D, Leigh J, Samara G, Barkemeyer R. Grand challenges in developing countries: Context, relationships, and logics. Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility. 2021 Sep;30(S1):1–4. Maleta K. Undernutrition. Malawi medical journal: the journal of Medical Association of Malawi. 2006 Dec;18(4):189–205. World Health Organization. Stunting in a nutshell. www.who.int . 2015 Nov;19. Beal T, Tumilowicz A, Sutrisna A, Izwardy D, Neufeld LM. A review of child stunting determinants in Indonesia. Maternal & Child Nutrition. 2018 May 17;14(4):e12617. Vaivada T, Akseer N, Akseer S, Somaskandan A, Stefopulos M, Bhutta ZA. Stunting in childhood: an overview of global burden, trends, determinants, and drivers of decline. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2020 Aug 29;112. Soliman A, De Sanctis V, Alaaraj N, Ahmed S, Alyafei F, Hamed N, et al. Early and Long-term Consequences of Nutritional Stunting: From Childhood to Adulthood. Acta Bio Medica : Atenei Parmensis. 2021;92(1) Correia LL, Silva AC e, Campos JS, Andrade FM de O, Machado MMT, Lindsay AC, et al. Prevalence and determinants of child undernutrition and stunting in semiarid region of Brazil. Revista de Saúde Pública. 2014 Feb 1;48:19–28. Abdulahi A, Shab-Bidar S, Rezaei S, Djafarian K. Nutritional status of under five children in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences. 2017 Mar 15;27(2):175. Kofinti RE, Koomson I, Paintsil JA, Ameyaw EK. Reducing children’s malnutrition by increasing mothers’ health insurance coverage: A focus on stunting and underweight across 32 sub-Saharan African countries. Economic Modelling. 2022 Dec 1;117:106049. Vonaesch P, Tondeur L, Breurec S, Bata P, Nguyen LBL, Frank T, et al. Factors associated with stunting in healthy children aged 5 years and less living in Bangui (RCA). Wieringa F, editor. PLOS ONE. 2017 Aug 10;12(8):e0182363. Raj E, Calvo-Urbano B, Heffernan C, Halder J, Webster JP. Systematic review to evaluate a potential association between helminth infection and physical stunting in children. Parasites & Vectors. 2022 Apr 20;15(1). Schaible UE, Kaufmann SHE. Malnutrition and Infection: Complex Mechanisms and Global Impacts. PLoS Medicine. 2007 May 1;4(5):e115. Sinharoy SS, Clasen T, Martorell R. Air pollution and stunting: a missing link? The Lancet Global Health. 2020 Apr;8(4):e472–5. UNICEF. Malnutrition in Children. UNICEF DATA. 2023. Project Gallery

An extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you.  Discover Your Next Great Read Deep Dive into STEM Books Here you can explore an extensive collection of insightful reviews on the best STEM books available. Whether you're a student looking to deepen your knowledge or something to aid or complement your revision and research, an educator seeking great resources for your classroom, or simply a curious mind passionate about science, technology, engineering, mathematics, medicine and more, you'll find something here to inspire and inform you. Our Curated Selections: Intern Blues by Robert Marion, M.D. The Emperor of All Maladies by Siddhartha Mukherjee The Molecule by Dr Rick Sax and Marta New

CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Biggest Innovations in Biosciences 09/03/26, 15:00 Last updated: Published: 25/03/24, 11:43 CRISPR-Cas9, CAR T-cells, incretins, and iPSCs We are in the era of innovation and cutting-edge technology in biosciences and health. This article goes through some of the most remarkable technologies slowly conquering the world of biosciences. Gene editing and CRISPR-Cas9 Gene editing is based on the idea that correcting the genetic mistake that causes a disease offers a permanent result than curing the symptoms. This technique allows scientists to alter the DNA of cells by deleting, adding or modifying genes. There are numerous ways to edit a gene. The most widely used and revolutionary method for gene editing is CRISPR-Cas9, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR- associated protein 9. The process begins with the design of a synthetic RNA molecule, known as guide RNA (gRNA) that matches the target gene sequence. The gRNA, combined with the Cas9 protein, forms a complex that is then introduced into the target cells. Cas9 acts like scissors, guided by the gRNA, to locate the precise location on the DNA where the genetic modification is intended. Once the target site is identified, Cas9 induces a break in the DNA strand. The cell's natural DNA repair mechanisms then come into play. The non- homologous end joining pathway introduces insertions and deletions at the site, resulting in gene knockout or inactivation. On the other hand, once a DNA template with homology to the sequences is present, the homology-directed repair pathway allows the incorporation of a desired genetic sequence, facilitating gene insertion or replacement. Several other gene-editing techniques have been developed, each with unique approaches. Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs) and Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) are two examples. These methods also use proteins that act as molecular scissors to cut the DNA at specific locations. ZFNs use zinc finger proteins to bind to target DNA sequences, while TALENs use transcription activator-like effector proteins. As the field of gene editing rapidly advances, these diverse methods contribute to the expanding toolkit available for researchers and hold promise for addressing a wide array of applications, from medical treatments to agricultural improvements. CAR T-cells Chimeric antigen receptor T-cells (CAR T-cells) are a new type of immunotherapy, considered to be the new fighters in the war on cancer. In general, immunotherapies use the patient’s immune system to fight the cancer. This therapy promises more specificity than traditional therapies and more permanent results. T-cells naturally exist in the human organism, supporting the adaptive immune system. They are a group of lymphocytes in the blood or lymph tissue that target or kill specific pathogens. Each type of T-cell recognises specific pathogens. T-cells have proteins on their outer surface, called receptors and these receptors recognize specific proteins on the outer surface of the pathogen. Depending on the type of T-cell, after recognizing the specific pathogen, they are either killing the pathogen (killer T-cells) or signaling to other elements of immune system to attack the pathogen (helper T-cells). CAR T-cell therapy involves modifying a patient’s own T-cells to express a specific CAR on their surface. The receptor is designed to recognise antigens commonly found on the surface of cancer cells. To introduce CARs on the outer surface of T-cells, the patient’s T-cells are genetically modified in the lab. A viral vector is often used to knock out the original T-cell receptors and express the CAR construct. The newly created CAR-T-cells are introduced into the patients, where they target and destroy cancer cells expressing the specific antigen for which the CAR is designed. Incretins The scientific journal “Science” proclaimed glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists The Breakthrough of 2023. These medications, originally approved for type 2 diabetes, demonstrated remarkable weight-loss benefits. GLP-1 is a natural hormone produced in the intestines that plays a role in regulating blood sugar levels. When we eat a meal, incretins, GLP-1 and Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), are released into the bloodstream. They bind to specific receptors on the beta cells of the pancreas, triggering insulin release. Incretins also suppress the release of glucagon, a hormone that increases blood sugar levels by promoting the breakdown of stored glucose. GLP-1 receptor agonists are medications that mimic the effects of GLP-1. They bind to the GLP-1 receptors on pancreatic beta cells, promoting insulin secretion and suppressing glucagon release. By mimicking the actions of GLP-1, these medications help to lower sugar levels, improve glucose control, and reduce the risk of hypoglycemia. At the same time, they seem to regulate the appetite and delay gastric emptying. New GLP-1 medicines have been produced to combat weight loss with high efficacies; some are available on the NHS while others can be purchased privately. iPSCs Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are becoming a new powerful weapon in lab research. They are a type of stem cell that can be generated from adult cells, such as skin or blood cells, through reprogramming. The process of creating iPSCs involves introducing a set of specific genes into the adult cells. These reprogramming factors reset the adult cells' developmental clock, turning them back into a pluripotent state, similar to embryonic stem cells. Once iPSCs are generated, they can be expanded indefinitely in the laboratory and induced to differentiate into various cell types. iPSCs are a valuable tool for studying human development and disease, as well as for drug discovery and regenerative medicine. iPSCs can be derived from patients with genetic diseases or other conditions, allowing researchers to study disease mechanisms in a dish. By differentiating iPSCs into the relevant cell types affected by the disease, researchers can observe how the disease develops and test potential treatments. Moreover, iPSC-derived cells can screen potential drugs for safety and efficacy. Because iPSCs can differentiate into many different cell types, they provide a more accurate model of human biology than traditional cell culture methods. Finally, because iPSCs can be derived from individual patients, they offer the potential for personalised therapies. iPSCs could be used to generate patient-specific cells for transplantation or to test drugs for individual patients. Conclusion These cutting-edge technologies offer unprecedented opportunities for targeted interventions in the treatment of genetic disorders, cancer, diabetes, and a myriad of other diseases. However alongside their immense promise, these biotechnological techniques and therapies also raise important ethical, social and regulatory considerations. The implications of gene editing on human germline cells, the accessibility of advanced therapies, and the long-term safety of these interventions are critical areas that warrant careful attention and thoughtful deliberation. Embracing these innovative techniques with diligence holds the key to unlocking a future where previously incurable conditions become manageable, and where the boundaries of medical possibility are continually expanded. Written by Matina Laskou Related articles: Medical biotechnology / Mesenchymal stem cells Project Gallery

Linking a country's HDI with its COVID-19 mortality rate Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Correlation between wealthy countries and COVID-19 mortality rate 09/03/26, 08:30 Last updated: Published: 24/08/23, 16:20 Linking a country's HDI with its COVID-19 mortality rate Investigation title: Could there have been a correlation between very rich countries and COVID-19 mortality rate? Investigation period: December 2019- November 2020 (Approx. 1 year) Background The World Health Organisation (WHO) were first alerted about coronavirus on the 31st December 2019, by a lot of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, China that has a population of 11 million. Furthermore, by 15th January 2020 there were precisely 289 cases recorded in countries such as: Thailand, Japan, S.Korea, and other places in China. And of the original cases there were 6 deaths, 51 severe cases - 12 of which were in critical condition. Meanwhile, the virus responsible for the cases was isolated and had its genome mapped, and was shared on 12th January. HDI represents the measurement of development. This is a composite of Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, mean years of education and life expectancy at birth, to measure the development of a country. It is calculated between a scale of 0 (least developed) to 1 (most developed) and all its values are to 3 significant figures. HDI values of 2019 and countries of HDI greater than 0.800 were used, as these are all regarded as very high HDI-countries so were in the scope of this investigation. Therefore, this research aimed to determine the impact of human development on the number of mortalities caused by SARS-CoV-2; where human development is measured by HDI, and the number of mortalities per hundred thousand from December 2019 to November 2020. Method Stratified sampling produced 12 countries, in descending order of HDI value: - Australia, Netherlands, UK, Austria, Spain, Estonia, UAE, Portugal, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Romania, Malaysia See Table 4 . Results See Chart 2 . r= 0.321 (3 s.f.) – Pearson’s test ∴ There is a moderate positive linear correlation between HDI and mortality rate due to SARS-CoV-2 per 100,000. Further stats testing- Spearman’s Rank ∑D^2 = 216 n = 12 Rs = 1 - (6 ∑D^2 )/ n(n^2 – n) = 1 - (6 x 216) 1584 = 0.182 (3 d.p.) Rs = 0.245 ＜ Critical Value (0.0.587591) ∴ There is no correlation between HDI and mortality rate due to coronavirus per 100,000. Conclusion The null hypothesis was accepted: there is no correlation between a country’s HDI and its mortality rate due to SARS-CoV-2. A biogeographical reason for this is that the more developed countries (such as those in my investigation- for example, the UK) have a higher level of immigration from latitudes closer to the equator, therefore there is a section of their society with increased susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 due to vitamin D deficiency. It is known that low vitamin D levels have a negative impact on immune function and that low vitamin D levels are common in the immigrant population. Therefore, it is likely that there is a link between vitamin D deficiency and mortality rate per 100,000, however this could be overstated due to confounding factors such as socioeconomic status, residence and employment. This would explain why countries at higher latitudes like the Netherlands have higher mortality rates per 100,000 (41.80) which is the third highest HDI-country in this investigation. Another explanation for this non-correlation could be that the less developed countries could be more used to dealing with a pandemic, or stress on a healthcare system, due to previous experience. For example, after the SARS outbreak, many countries decided to prepare in case of a pandemic, however some large HDI-countries such as the UK chose not to and even ignored other warnings on the effects of a pandemic (like the exercise signs simulation). Moreover, studies have shown that as a very high HDI-country becomes more developed, its healthcare system continues to develop until it reaches a peak where its effectiveness is undermined by economic benefit or interest. This would explain why the UK had a death rate of 342 per 100,000 and a total death count of around 232,422 (as of early 2026), and as of 2024/25, the UK recorded higher-than-expected death rates compared to other countries. Implications Since there is no correlation between a country’s HDI index and its mortality rate of COVID-19, this may apply to other diseases that became pandemics such as 1918’s Spanish Flu, or more recent ones like the SARS outbreak in the early 21st century. As for tropical diseases (malaria, dengue, chikungunya and others) and other illnesses such as the common cold and the flu, these diseases present in only certain geographies. This means that the countries with these ailments will be of a similar HDI and economical status; therefore there would be a correlation between a country’s HDI index and its mortality rate of these diseases, to a certain extent. Investigation conducted and written by Roshan Gill Tables, charts, stats and calculations by Roshan Gill Summary by Manisha Halkhoree ‘Implications’ section by Manisha Halkhoree Related articles: Causality vs correlation / Impacts of global warming on dengue fever / Global Health Injustices (series) Project Gallery

Vicuñas are members of the camelid family Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The cost of coats: celebrating 55 years of vicuña conservation 08/03/26, 18:25 Last updated: Published: 09/10/24, 14:03 Vicuñas are members of the camelid family This is article no. 1 in a series on animal conservation. Next article: Conserving the California condor . Is the softest coat in the world worth the near-extinction of a species? Just ask a vicuña, the wild cousin of llamas and alpacas. After being widely hunted in South America in the mid-20th century, the vicuña population thrives. Their recovery is considered one of the earliest successes in modern wildlife conservation, setting a precedent for sustainable development. October 2024 marked the 55th anniversary of the first international agreement to conserve these furry friends. In its honour, here is the story of vicuña conservation. What are vicuñas? Vicuñas have a unique biology. They are members of the camelid family ー which includes llamas, alpacas, and camels. Vicuñas live in high-altitude arid grasslands in South America (Figure 1). Their families consist of one alpha male, multiple females, and their offspring – while bachelor males form their own groups. Unlike other camelids, vicuña families remain together for most of the year. Vicuñas are herbivores with characteristic grazing and defecating behaviours that shape the surrounding plant community. Therefore, their ecological role cannot be underestimated. How vicuñas nearly went extinct However, vicuñas are hunted by humans because their wool is the finest and softest in the world. They are difficult to domesticate, and their habitat has no hiding spots, so they are easy poaching targets. Their intricate social structure means killing one vicuña has unforeseen impacts on the rest of the population. Consequently, expensive wool comes at the expense of a fascinating species. Demand for ultra-fine vicuña wool made hunting the animals a lucrative business in South America. Although 15th-16th century Inca rulers wore high-end clothing made from vicuña wool, it was usually harvested without killing the animals. European colonisation in the 19th-20th centuries opened vicuña wool to a wealthy international market, making poaching more popular and reckless than under Inca rule. These inconsiderate hunting practices continued after South American countries gained independence. As the luxurious wool remained in demand, the vicuña population decreased by over 99% between 1940 and 1965. Conservation policies saved the vicuñas South American national governments soon realised that indiscriminate vicuña hunting had to stop. As well as being ecologically important, vicuñas should not be allowed to go extinct because of their economic value. Peru had the largest proportion of the vicuña population, so in 1966 its government set up a nature reserve called Pampa Galeras. Creating this reserve involved negotiating with rural communities so that both people and vicuñas benefitted, for example, by employing locals at the reserve. This was one of the earliest examples of what is now known as sustainable development, which provides rural communities with a way of life that works alongside ecosystems rather than damaging them. Scientists found that vicuñas changed their social structures inside Pampa Galeras to maximise reproductive success. A 1987 study suggested that because females had more time to graze without the constant threat of predators and poachers, their reproductive success was higher. The creation of this reserve was the first of many successful steps South America took in the 1960s towards vicuña recovery. In October 1969, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, and Bolivia joined Peru in the efforts to conserve vicuñas. Their Convention for the Conservation of the Vicuña banned international trade and massively restricted hunting. Since the convention successfully led to a rise in vicuña numbers, it was modified in 1979 so that sustainable vicuña wool could be sold. Meanwhile, conservation laws were being established in the United States and European Union, the wildlife trade regulator CITES was established, and public awareness about the biodiversity crisis was rising. This international effort saved vicuñas from extinction, and today there are 350,000 to 500,000 of them ( Figure 2 ). Although governments have played a huge role in conserving the vicuña, local communities have also contributed. People in Chile and Peru have revived the non-lethal, Inca traditional way of shearing vicuña to harvest their wool. This has many benefits: locals are de-colonising their culture and re-connecting with their heritage, the wool provides a source of income, and the vicuña population remains stable. Vicuñas were classified as ‘least concern’ for conservation by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 2018. Climate change, mite infestations, and competition with livestock are affecting the population today – but to a much smaller extent than poaching was. Thus, vicuñas are back to freely roaming the Andes. Conclusion Conserving the vicuña relied on political willpower and community involvement. In the 55+ years since, ecologists have used this charismatic and distinctive animal to galvanise wildlife conservation worldwide. The vicuña’s story should also remind us that what we wear has financial and ecological costs. Written by Simran Patel Related articles: Conservation of marine igunanas / Gal á gapos tortoises REFERENCES Acebes, P., Wheeler, J., Baldo, J.L., Tuppia, P., Lichtenstein, G., Hoces, D. & Franklin, W.L. (2018) Vicuna: Vicugna vicugna . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018 . Available from: https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/178499 (Accessed 12th September 2024). Bosch, P.C. & Svendsen, G.E. (1987) Behavior of Male and Female Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna Molina 1782) as It Relates to Reproductive Effort. Journal of Mammalogy . 68 (2): 425–429. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2307/1381491 (Accessed 23rd September 2024). González, B. et al. (2019) Phylogeography and Population Genetics of Vicugna vicugna : Evolution in the Arid Andean High Plateau. Frontiers in Genetics . 10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.00445 (Accessed 22nd September 2024). Karandikar, H., Donadio, E., Smith, J.A., Bidder, O.R. & Middleton, A.D. (2023) Spatial ecology of the Vicuña ( Lama vicugna ) in a high Andean protected area. Journal of Mammalogy . 104 (3): 509–518. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyad018 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Lyster, S. (1985) VICUNA. In: International Wildlife Law: An Analysis of International Treaties concerned with the Conservation of Wildlife . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 88–94. Nolan, D. (2025) How an Ancestral Peruvian Ceremony Is Saving the Once-Endangered Vicuña . Smithsonian Magazine . Available at: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/how-an-ancestral-peruvian-ceremony-is-saving-the-once-endangered-vicuna-180986933/ (Accessed: 7 March 2026). Reider, K.E. & Schmidt, S.K. (2021) Vicuña dung gardens at the edge of the cryosphere. Ecology . 102 (2): 1–3. Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26998110 (Accessed 11th September 2024). UNESCO (2024) Ancestral practice promotes vicuña conservation and sustainable . unesco.org . Available at: https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/ancestral-practice-promotes-vicuna-conservation-and-sustainable-development-chiles-lauca-biosphere (Accessed: 7 March 2026). Vilá, B. & Arzamendia, Y. (2022) Weaving a vicuña shawl. Pastoralism . 12 (1): 46. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13570-022-00260-6 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Wakild, E. (2020) Saving the Vicuña: The Political, Biophysical, and Cultural History of Wild Animal Conservation in Peru, 1964–2000. The American Historical Review . 125 (1): 54–88. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/rhz939 (Accessed 11th September 2024). Yacobaccio, H. (2009) The Historical Relationship Between People and the Vicuña. In: Gordon, I.J., ed. The Vicuña: The Theory and Practice of Community Based Wildlife Management . Boston, MA: Springer US: 7–20. Project Gallery

Rising temperatures can affect brain health Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link The Brain-Climate Connection: The Hidden Impact of Rising Temperatures 08/03/26, 20:01 Last updated: Published: 24/05/23, 09:55 Rising temperatures can affect brain health Global warming is not only disrupting ecosystems, affecting the food we eat and the air we breathe, but it’s also impacting our neurological health. According to the Met Office and ECMWF, 2025 was confirmed as one of the top three warmest years on record globally - following 2024 and 2023- with temperatures ~1.41°C to 1.44°C above the 1850-1900 average. To understand this better, let’s start with the basics. The brain is made up of billions of tiny cells called neurons that communicate with each other by generating electrochemical signals. Think of neurons as small batteries capable of producing electricity when triggered by electrically charged chemicals, called ions. When a neuron is at rest, so when it’s not transmitting an electrical signal, it maintains a negative charge inside compared to the outside. This difference in charge is created by the selective movement of ions across the neuron’s membrane through ion channels and pumps. The resting membrane potential of a neuron is typically around -70 millivolts (mV). When a neuron needs to send information, it generates electrical activity called action potential , which causes the electrical charge to become less negative and closer to zero. To trigger a full-sized action potential, the electrical charge needs to reach a threshold of approximately -55 mV. If the charge reaches this threshold, a full-sized action potential is triggered and the neuron will send a signal down to other neurons. However, if the electrical charge does not reach this threshold, the neuron will not send a signal at all. This is known as the “ALL OR NONE” principle. The action potential is a crucial part of the neuron’s communication process, as it allows the neuron to send signals quickly and efficiently to other neurons. But here’s the catch: temperature fluctuations can affect the ion channels that generate and propagate action potentials, which are critical for the neuron’s communication process. It turns out that an increase in temperature can influence the generation , speed , and duration of action potentials. But that’s not all! Hotter temperatures can trigger seizures in individuals with epilepsy or a history of seizures. One of the most concerning findings from scientific research is that climate change, among other factors, may contribute to an increase in seizure severity and frequency, as well as the development of cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, such as strokes or dementia . Triggering stress and sleep deprivation, heat waves can also exacerbate the symptoms of such pre-existing disorders. The good news is that we can take action to address the direct impact of climate change on our planet and health. Joining initiatives like Climatematch Academy (CMA) , a 2-week interactive online summer school, can help you learn more about climate science and become part of a global community that is working towards a more sustainable future. CMA is an all-volunteer organization run by dozens of science enthusiasts. It aims at introducing computational methods for climate science taking advantage of available open-source tools and datasets to make science accessible to students worldwide. This is your chance to learn cutting-edge techniques from climate science experts and make a difference in the world, ensuring a brighter future for ourselves and future generations. Written by Viviana Greco Related articles: The environmental impact of EVs / Emperor penguins / Impacts of global warming on NTDs Project Gallery

Your brain is truly an extraordinary structure, and it’s the reason you can do all the amazing things you do. This mass of wrinkly material weighs only about 1.3 kilograms, yet it controls every single thing you will ever do. It’s the engine that drives our behaviour and allows us to interact with the world.  Go Back Facebook X (Twitter) WhatsApp LinkedIn Pinterest Copy link Discovering the Wonders of the Human Brain Last updated: 08/03/26 Published: 13/04/23 Your brain is truly an extraordinary structure, and it’s the reason you can do all the amazing things you do. This mass of wrinkly material weighs only about 1.3 kilograms, yet it controls every single thing you will ever do. It’s the engine that drives our behaviour and allows us to interact with the world. Despite its relatively small size — the brain makes up only 2% of our body mass — it’s an incredibly energy-intensive organ. In fact, it consumes more than 20% of our oxygen supply and blood flow and uses more energy than any other tissue in the body. This is because it has a dense network of neurons, specialised cells that transmit signals throughout the nervous system. There are around 100 billion neurons in the human brain, each connected to thousands of other neurons, passing signals to each other via trillions of synapses. The human brain has more connections than there are stars in the Milky Way galaxy and it can process information at a speed of up to 120 metres per second! Even when you are asleep your brain never really “shuts off”! While you’re snoozing away, your brain is busy consolidating memories, processing emotions, flushing out harmful toxins and keeping your mind sharp and healthy. One more key feature that sets our brain apart is the cortex, the outer layer of the brain responsible for many of the higher cognitive functions that are unique to humans, such as abstract reasoning and language. While all mammals have a cerebral cortex, the human cortex is disproportionately large, accounting for 80% of our total brain mass, and it’s much more complex than any other animal. Now, have you ever wondered how the human brain compares to the brains of other animals? Some animals have much larger brains than we do. For instance, the brain of a sperm whale weighs around 8 kilograms, making it the largest brain of any animal on Earth. To put it into perspective, that’s about five times the size of a human brain! Similarly, the brains of elephants are also much larger than ours, weighing in at around 5 kilograms. Comparative neuronal morphology of the cerebellar cortex in afrotherians, carnivores, cetartiodactyls, and primates We might not have the largest brain compared to other species however, the human brain is larger than most animal brains relative to body size. Why did humans evolve such large brains in the first place? The question has puzzled scientists for years, but there are a few theories that have gained traction. The Social Brain Hypothesis (SBH) suggests that our large brains evolved as a result of our ancestors’ increasingly complex social structures. As early humans began to live in larger groups, they needed to be able to navigate the complex social dynamics of their communities, for example cooperating for resources and maintaining social relationships. Another theory known as “ecological intelligence”, suggests that the pressure for larger brains was driven by environmental conditions. Our ancestors had to adapt to the challenges posed by the environment, such as finding food and shelter. Finally, the Cultural Intelligence (CQ) hypothesis emphasises the challenge of learning from different cultures and teaching their own. While each of these theories has some evidence to support it, there is still much debate among scientists about which theory (if any) is the most accurate. It is likely that all three theories played a role in the evolution of the human brain, to varying degrees. The human brain is a fascinating organ that has captivated scientists and researchers for centuries. Despite all our advances in neuroscience, however, there is still so much that we don’t know about how the brain works and what it is truly capable of. Written by Viviana Greco Related article: The brain-climate connection REFERENCES González-Forero, M., & Gardner, A., 2018. Inference of ecological and social drivers of human brain-size evolution. Nature, 557(7706), Article 7706. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0127-x Jacobs, B., Johnson, N. L., Wahl, D., et. al, 2014. Comparative neuronal morphology of the cerebellar cortex in afrotherians, carnivores, cetartiodactyls, and primates. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnana.2014.00024